Lakshmi: The Lotus Goddess

Lakshmi, Mahalakshmi, Padmavati, Shri, Bhoodevi ., one of the
aspects of female cosmic energy, represents fertility, abundance,
prosperity, riches, brilliance and beauty – the ‘rajas’ aspect of
the phenomenal universe. Sage Markandeya perceives the divine
form, manifesting this female cosmic energy, as one and also as
three-aspected : ‘Mahalakshmir Mahakali saiva prokta Saraswati,
Ishvari punyapapana sarvalokamaheshvari’ (Devi-Mahatmya, Part 3,
Chapter Vaikrtika Rahasya, verse 25), that is, ‘She herself is
proclaimed as Mahalakshmi, Mahakali, and (Maha) Saraswati, the
great ruler of all worlds, reigning over the virtuous and the
wicked’. To sage Markandeya, unity and diversity are attributes
of the same, whether the universe or the divine power governing
it. In his equation, as the universe is one but is composed of
and represents three basic elements – ‘tamas’, ‘rajas’ and
‘sattva’, that are inertia, dynamism and luminosity, the female
cosmic energy pervading and operating over it is one and also
triply manifesting. Thus, Mahalakshmi is also Mahakali and
Mahasaraswati and vice-versa. In Markandeya Purana, Mahalakshmi
is as much the goddess of battlefield as Mahakali or Mahasaraswati.

As per Markandeya Purana, it is in her manifestation as
Mahalakshmi that Devi kills Mahishasura. Indeed, while the roles
of Mahakali and Mahasaraswati confine to eliminating demons and
evil, Mahalakshmi operates also beyond the battlefield
representing auspiciousness and beauty.

Origin Of Lakshmi

It is only from 3rd century B. C. onwards that her iconic form,
now almost unanimously identified as Lakshmi, begins appearing.
This form of her, carrying lotuses in her hands, many more
growing around, and elephants surrounding her – an image of
beauty, appears first in the Sanchi and Bharhut reliefs of the
3rd-2nd century B. C., though despite that she figures, and quite
significantly, in these Buddhist reliefs, early or even
contemporary Buddhist texts do not speak of her at all. Thus, she
was a part of Buddhist sculptures but not of those days’ Buddhist pantheon.

Maybe, like many other motifs the Sanchi and Bharhut sculptors
borrowed her form, obviously in view of her aesthetic beauty,
from some early tradition for embellishing gates’ facades and
other prominent areas of the stupas. Those relying only on
archaeological finds, which little support this theory, might not
see in the lotus goddess at Sanchi and Bharhut any such
continuity of an early tradition, but even to them, it is nothing
less than a form evolved conjointly out of various sources –
verbal connotation of the Vedic Mahimata, attributes of Sita,
another Vedic visualization of productive process, Indus
fertility cult, iconographic vision of the Mother goddess…

Lakshmi In Vedas

The monotheistic Vedas, despite their perception of cosmic unity,
deciphered on the very outset the two aspected character of
existence and creative process, one, the male, and other, the
female. The Rig-Veda perceives the maleness and the femaleness as
contained within a single frame but also as two attributes of the
‘contained’. Apart such mystic duality, the Vedas directly allude
to a number of operative attributes, male and female, having
cosmic dimensions, deify them, and sometimes even personalise.
Among those identified personally Vak, Ushas, Shri, Sita and
Ratri are the main. Sita, the furrow-line, and Ratri, the night,
are casually alluded to, and that too, in Upanishads. However,
independent ‘Suktas’ are devoted to Vak – speech, and Ushas –
dawn. The Vedas have also alluded to human females, Aditi, the
mother of gods, Diti, Ila and a few others. Though no hymns are
attributed to, or rites ascribed, the Vedas allude to Mahimata,
Mother earth, a deity identical to Harappan Mother Goddess. The
Rig-Veda has some ‘Suktas’ devoted to Shri but it is completely
indifferent to Lakshmi. This Rig-Vedic Shri is not a form of
Lakshmi as she becomes later. The hymn : ‘Ashvapurvau
rathamadhyam hastinadaprabodhineem, Shriyam devimupahvaye shrirma
devi jushatam’; that is, let me be possessed of Shri who equals
an army well accomplished with horses, chariots, elephants etc.
and let my home be her perpetual abode, is sometimes contended to
relate to Lakshmi but while the hymn perceives Shri as one having
immense power equal to an army, Lakshmi represented fertility and abundance.

If at all, Lakshmi made a debut during the later Vedic period,
especially in the Atharva-Veda that alludes to an anonymous deity
possessed of large breasts with milk oozing from them. Certainly
not a form of Shri, the Atharva-Veda appears to be alluding to
the Indus Mother Goddess or a goddess identical to her preceding
the milk-filled large-breasted Lakshmi icons of Sanchi and
Bharhut. In all likelihood this large-breasted goddess,
representing fertility, generative energy and abundance,
transformed into the lotus goddess in the 3rd-2nd century B. C.
reliefs. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata allude to Lakshmi but
many of these allusions are either only by interpretation or
confine to particular editions. Chapter 45 of Bal-kanda in the
Valmiki Ramayana narrates the legend of ocean churning out of
which Lakshmi emerged. Many scholars have quoted this chapter as
elaborating Lakshmi’s physical appearance and personality, though
even the Gita Press, Gorakhpur, edition of the Ramayana does not
have any mention of her. Whatever her form, visual or verbal, so
far, Lakshmi was an independent divinity without a male partner,
or male counterpart. Like the Mother Goddess, she was initially
two-armed but subsequently her images began having four arms.
This two and four armed iconography continued ever since – her
votive images being four-armed, and aesthetic, two-armed. Later,
the Puranic literature transformed her into Vishnu’s spouse
assisting him in accomplishing his sustenance-related acts, or
serving him personally. Puranas wove around her numerous legends
in regard to her origin, forms, acts and aesthetic beauty, as
also hymns for her rituals.

Lakshmi’s Emergence from Ocean

If not subsequently added, the Ramayana is the earliest text to
have the legend of ocean churning for obtaining nectar, though
Lakshmi is not among the jewels that ocean revealed (Valmiki
Ramayana, Bal-kanda, chapter 45). In the Mahabharata (Adiparva,
4) the legend has been dealt with at greater length and Lakshmi
is one of the jewels emerging out of the ocean-churning. Almost
unchanged it was reproduced later in many Puranas. As different
texts have it, once the sons of Aditi – the gods, and those of
Diti – the demons, joined hands to obtain nectar which, they were
told, they could obtain by churning ocean. Using Mount Meru as
the rod and serpent Vasuki as the rope they began churning the
ocean. The disgruntled Vasuki breathed so much of venom that it
not only enshrouded the entire universe but also began
suffocating gods and demons. On Vishnu’s prayer Shiva stored the
arson into his throat and saved the cosmos from being destroyed.
Relieved from arson’s influence gods and demons began their
exercise afresh. Lakshmi, who emerged riding a lotus, was one
among fourteen jewels which the ocean revealed. Brahma gifted her
to Vishnu who accepted her as his consort. In visual arts the
earliest appearance of the ocean-churning theme is reported from
the early Gupta period cave temple (300 AD) at Udayagiri in
Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh. The lintel of the entrance to the temple
has a relief of ocean-churning with a strong Lakshmi image
emerging from it.

Other Myths Of Her Origin

As has a myth in Vishnu Purana (1/8), Lakshmi was re-born on the
earth as the daughter of sage Bhragu, the son of Brahman. Her
mother was Khyati, the daughter of Daksha Prajapati. After a
period of time she was married to Narayana, an incarnation of
Vishnu. She had by Narayana two sons, named Bala and Unmada.
Brahmavaivarta Purana attributes her origin to Vishnu. As
acclaimed, Lakshmi was born out of Vishnu’s right half, while
from his left half was born Radha, Lakshmi’s another incarnation.
In Vishnu’s Ardhanarishvara images, which are very rare, Lakshmi
is represented as comprising Vishnu’s left half – a visual
manifestation of the Brahmavaivarta Purana myth.

Quite strangely, while in Shiva’s Ardhanarishvara forms his
consort’s image, who is otherwise more masculine and vigorous
engaged in acts like slaying demons, is usually humbly conceived,
Lakshmi’s image in Vishnu’s Ardhanarishvara forms is far more
pronounced. The Bhagawata Purana identifies yet another form of
Lakshmi in the Shrivatsa mark on Vishnu’s chest. As is Bhagawata
Purana’s version of the sage Bhragu-related myth, in the course
of the yajna which Manu held, sage Bhragu was nominated by all
Brahmins and sages to decide who of the Great Trio was the
supreme divinity. For acquainting himself with their views Bhragu
decided to visit all three gods. He first went to Shiva, who busy
with Parvati, had no time to pay him any attention. Brahma was
rather rude. However, the sage lost his temper when he found
Vishnu asleep. The enraged sage hit him with his leg, which not
only awoke him but also left on his chest a mark – Shrivatsa.
However, Vishnu’s reaction was only apologetic for being asleep.
Pleased with Vishnu’s humility sage Bhragu blessed him that in
the form of Shrivatsa he would always have Lakshmi in his bosom.

In the Bhragu-incidence Padma Purana has sought Lakshmi’s
re-emergence in a different way. Lakshmi, who was in Vishnu’s
bosom when sage Bhragu hit him on his chest, felt insulted, more
so, on Vishnu’s apologetic reaction. Consequently, she abandoned
him and his Baikuntha – Vishnu’s abode. Unable to bear separation
Vishnu also left Baikuntha and looking for her descended on the
earth where he re-emerged as Venkatesh.

Many yugas – cosmic ages passed in repentance and yearning. Now
reconciled, Lakshmi decided to re-emerge in Vishnu’s heart as an
intrinsic realization. One day Vishnu realized Lakshmi unfolding
within him like a lotus and he felt that he was re-united with
her. The moment his realization was absolute, the universe glowed
with a divine luster and all around was abundance, riches,
prosperity, fertility and beauty. Thus, Lakshmi dually emerged in
Vishnu’s life, one, by realisation, and other, by manifestation.
She, who sprouted like a lotus – padma, was Lakshmi’s transform
as Padmavati, and she, who was beauty incarnate and manifested in
riches and abundance, was her transform as Shri.

Lakshmi As Bhoodevi

Myths, prevalent in southern part of India, claim Bhoodevi as
Lakshmi’s yet another transform, in addition to Padmavati and
Shridevi. She is sometimes claimed to be Lakshmi in her re-birth
and sometimes as one of Vishnu’s two wives, the other being Shridevi.

In South Indian art, especially bronzes, Shridevi and Bhoodevi
are often seen flanking Vishnu’s images. Lakshmi’s transform as
Bhoodevi is also related to Bhragu myth. Over a period of time
Bhragu felt penitent for his misconduct against Vishnu resulting
in Vishnu’s separation from Lakshmi. He hence ardently sought
their re-union. After deserting Vishnu Lakshmi had descended on
the earth and had merged into cows grazing near the termite hill
in the South. Bhragu, disguised as a cowherd, began thrashing the
cows. Vishnu could not tolerate this cruelty of the cowherd and
punished him with his mace. Bhragu appeared and worshipped the
Lord for beating him. Lakshmi, who lived in cows, was appeased
for Lord Vishnu had avenged Bhragu and appeared before him but
not as Lakshmi but as Bhoodevi and united with him. This myth
seems to be an offshoot of the Vishnu Purana myth which claims
Lakshmi as Bhragu’s daughter who he had married to Narayana,
Vishnu’s incarnation; or at least, the underlying pith of the two
myths is quite identical. Bhoodevi-related other legend is as
widely known. Vishnu is known to have rescued Bhoodevi from
Hiranyaksha. It is said after she was rescued, Lord Vishnu took
her as his other consort.

Lakshmi’s Puranic Transform

Broadly, the Lakshmi of later scriptures, in her own form or in
transform or re-birth, is widely different from Mahalakshmi of
Devi-Mahatmya or from the lotus goddess of Sanchi and Bharhut
reliefs. Not merely that the adjectival suffix ‘Maha’ is dropped,
or her independent status, lost, the Mahisha-slayer Mahalakshmi
is widely different from Lakshmi, metaphysically or otherwise.
While Lakshmi is merely the manifestation of primordial female
energy, Mahalakshmi is the primordial female energy in her own
form. Even the Brahmavaivarta Purana acclaims her as Lakshmi’s
prime form out of her ten forms. It is Mahalakshmi alone who
resides in Baikuntha in the bosom of Mahavishnu. Instead of,
Lakshmi is now largely a boon-giving timid damsel serving her
spouse personally or by assisting him sustain the universe – his
primary cosmic act. She bestows bliss, prosperity, wealth and
material happiness, yields good crop and abundant grain, and
represents magnificence and beauty in life but all in a
subordinate position. As the textual tradition has it,
Mahalakshmi preceded Vishnu and pervaded not only the cosmos but
also Vishnu himself. She is Vishnu’s operative energy.

It is only a text or two that perceive her as Vishnu’s operative
energy or his feminine aspect, and thus Vishnu’s equal, though as
compared to her prior status when as Mahadevi, Vishnu’s
predecessor, she reigned over Vishnu and revealed to him as to
who he was, as also what was his errand, such metaphysical
wrangles are little gratifying. The process of depriving her of
her supreme divinity had begun with the Mahabharata itself where
in most contexts she was referred to as a mere linguistic
expression denotative of worldly riches and means. But, while in
the Mahabharata-like early texts she acclaimed to stay with the
virtuous, good and honest, in later Puranas she was slighted as
Chanchala – flirting and instable, as Rajalakshmi – kings’
property, broadly as one synonymous of riches and worldliness.

Lakshmi’s Names And Forms

Besides Mahalakshmi, Padmavati, Shri, Bhoodevi, Chanchala and
Rajalakshmi, Lakshmi is also known as Kamala, Dharini, Vaishnavi,
Narayani, Vishnu-priya . Kamala is denotative of her form as
Lotus goddess; Dharini, suggestive of her immense power to bear,
is denotative of the earth and thus of her Bhoodevi form; and,
Vaishnavi, Narayani and Vishnu-priya relate her to Vishnu as his
consort.

Main among Lakshmi’s forms, other than her transforms, or her
forms by re-birth or re-emergence, are her forms as Gaja-Lakshmi,

Lakshmi-Ganapati

and Deep-Lakshmi.

The Gaja-Lakshmi form is sometimes known also as Mahalakshmi
form. Apart, a folk Mahalakshmi form is also popular in some
parts of the country. This folk Mahalakshmi manifests mainly as a
highly ornate unbaked clay image of an elephant, sometimes two
smaller ones flanking on sides, usually with minuscule riders –
Lakshmi and her attendants, on their backs. This icon of
Mahalakshmi, especially the elephant image, is in live worship,
though only once a year on ‘Pitra-paksha Ashthami’ – the eighth
day of the dark-half of the month of Bhadaun. Notably, the
tradition does not subordinate elephant to Lakshmi as her mount,
as are subordinated lion, bull, Garuda, peacock, mouse. to other
gods and goddesses. Obviously, this sense of reverence perceives
elephant as an essential component of the Lakshmi cult, and the
two, as equally venerated. This cult seems to have some very
early roots, now forgotten. In Shrilankan Buddhism, Tara is
venerated as the commander of fierce elephants. Lakshmi preceded
Tara by centuries. Maybe, Lakshmi was the goddess who befriended
or commanded wild elephants, saved inhabitants from their rage
and to appease them prescribed their worship along her own. It is
quite likely that Tara inherited her form as the commander of
wild elephants from the Lakshmi-cult.

Gaja-Lakshmi is Lakshmi’s most represented form in art. It is as
massively worshipped. Lakshmi with ‘gajas’ – elephants, flanking
on either side is her form as Gaja-Lakshmi. It is, indeed, a form
of her in art. The Rig-Vedic Shri-Sutra alludes to elephants in
context to Shri but it is only to assert Shri’s immense power.
When describing how the image of Lakshmi with elephants
performing sacred ablution magnifies the beauty of lintel on the
gate of Ravana’s mansion (Valmiki Ramayana, Sundar-kanda, 7, 14),
the Ramayana alludes to Lakshmi’s Gaja-Lakshmi form, and is
perhaps the earliest to do so. However, the text only describes
linguistically a visual image sculpted on it. Lakshmi’s earliest
reported forms in visual arts manifest in the 3rd century B. C.
Sanchi reliefs. Not merely that these forms of Lakshmi have
elephants associated with them, these elephants have been carved
with the same amount of reverence as Lakshmi, an essential
feature of Gaja-Lakshmi principle. As alluded to in the Ramayana,
elephants in the Sanchi and Bharhut reliefs are performing sacred
ablution of the goddess, perhaps with milk brought from the
mythical Kshirasagara – the ocean of milk, in the pots of gold
held in their trunks. Elephants’ association with Lakshmi-images
has been a regular feature of Lakshmi’s iconography ever since.
The upper north-east chamber of Kuwwat-ul-Islam Mosque at Qut’b
complex, New Delhi, has in late Gupta art style a sculpture
representing elephants flanking the image of Lakshmi. The
sculpted stone-block was once the part of some early temple the
material of which was re-used in constructing the mosque.

Lakshmi-Ganapati is broadly an art form in which the two
independently represented images of Lakshmi and Ganesh constitute
one votive unit, commonly used during Diwali-puja. Sometimes
Lakshmi’s elephants flank both images conjointly, though instead
of bathing the deities, as they do in Gaja-Lakshmi form, they
make only offerings. This form better assures success,
prosperity, good crop … for, while Lakshmi bestows her
blessings, Ganapati keeps all detriments away. Lakshmi is the
consort of Lord Vishnu, but for obtaining Lakshmi – riches and
prosperity, she is not worshipped with him. It is by worshipping
her with Ganesha that she comes one’s way. ‘Shree Ganapate
namah’, ‘salutations to Thee, O Ganapati, whom Lakshmi precedes’,
is the most popular as well as effective ‘mantra’ – hymn, for the
invocation of Ganesha. Lakshmi precedes the worship of Ganapati,
that is, so effective is Lakshmi-Ganapati worship that even
before Ganesha is worshipped the devotee obtains Lakshmi – the
riches and prosperity.

Deep-Lakshmi is not a form or manifestation of the Goddess
Lakshmi. It is a simple votive icon combining lamp-forms with a
woman’s figure. To add to it auspiciousness it borrows Lakshmi’s
name, the auspicious-most goddess. Votive only in a restricted
sense, the Deep-Lakshmi icons are worshipped during Diwali-puja
along with Diwali’s presiding deity Lakshmi and Ganesh. However,
Deep-Lakshmi icons represent India’s ages’ long cult of
worshipping woman and celebrating the birth of light. These icons
not only synthesize India’s reverence for woman with exuberance
of light but also link it with Diwali, the festival of light and
the epitome of Lakshmi cult.

Imagery Of Lakshmi

The image of the gold-complexioned Lakshmi, as it emerges in
common man’s mind, is two-fold, one, the most lustrous divine
damsel endowed with unparalleled beauty, unearthly charm and
timeless youth, richly bejeweled and costumed – usually in red,
and possessed of the oceans of wealth. She sits on a full-blown
red lotus, is flanked by a pair of elephants performing sacred
ablution, is four-armed carrying in two of them a lotus, rosary,
pot, or one of Vishnu’s other attributes, and holds other two in
‘abhaya’ and ‘varada’, the postures that grant fearlessness,
bliss and redemption. Her other image is that of the most devoted
coy consort of Mahavishnu residing with him in Kshirasagara and
engaged incessantly in massaging his feet. Though possessed of
the same lustrous beauty and timeless youth as in her other form,
in this form, Lakshmi, with normal two arms engaged in serving
her lord, is more like an humble coy consort, not the mighty
slayer of a demon like Mahisha.

Like her concept, Lakshmi’s imagery also evolved over a period of
time. Initially as Mahalakshmi she has been conceived with eight,
ten, sixteen or even eighteen arms carrying in them variedly
prayer-beads, ax, mace, arrow, thunderbolt, staff, lance, sword,
shield, conch, bell, wine-cup, trident, noose and Sudarshana –
disc, and sometimes held two in ‘abhaya’ and ‘varada’.

Later, in her form as Lakshmi, in votive images, she is conceived
as four- armed, and in aesthetic, that is, when represented as
the consort of Lord Vishnu, with normal two arms. Lakshmi’s
primordial form was also four-armed, though while in this
primordial form she carried instruments of war, in her later
four-armed iconography, she usually carries in two of them lotus,
pot, rosary, fruit, or some other Vaishnava attribute, and holds
other two in ‘abhaya’ and ‘varada’. As Mahalakshmi she had
coral-like radiant complexion, which in Lakshmi’s iconography
changes into golden hue. In her form as Lakshmi, she wears rich
costume, majestic crown, precious stones and garland of Parijata flowers.

However little, each of Lakshmi’s different forms has its
iconographic distinction. Padmavati wears a lotus garland, not
one made from Parijata flowers. Lotus is an essential ingredient
in Lakshmi’s iconography but in Padmavati’s, it is more
thrusting. Lotus invariably comprises her seat. She often has a
lotus under her feet, carries lotuses at least in two of her
hands, and has sometimes lotus motifs on palms.  Lotuses often
define the ambience around and as often the architecture of the
sanctum she enshrines. She is usually installed under a
lotus-canopy. Symbolizing in one ocean, earth and sky, the lotus
is a characteristic feature of the entire iconography of Lakshmi,
who pervades them all, but in the iconography of Padmavati the
significance of lotus is also for other reason. It was in the
form of the lotus that Padmavati evolved in Vishnu’s heart.
Indeed, Padmavati’s evolution and lotus are mutually linked. As
Shridevi, Lakshmi is the image of the supreme beauty conceived as
heavily bejeweled. She is unique in luster and majesty.

No less is her splendor as Gaja-Lakshmi, though it is the
phenomenal presence of elephants, represented dramatically
bathing her, that imparts to her image its exotic distinction.
Bhoodevi, representing earthly character, the fertility, is
humbly attired. The Garuda-riding Vaishnavi, the goddess of
battlefield, carries instruments of war. Alike different are her
forms and overall personalities in her births as Radha and Sita.

Lakshmi’s Worship

Ironically, almost every Indian, rich or poor, king or subject,
prays Lakshmi to make his home her permanent abode, and hardly a
house, even an illiterate’s, would be without her name, graphic
symbol ‘swastika’, or her ‘mantra’ – ‘Shri Lakshmi sada sahay
karen’, that is, ‘may Lakshmi who is also Shri always be my help’,
inscribed on one of its walls or cash-boxes, or without her
visual representation – a metal or clay statue, or a painting –
printed or painted, even banks and Government bodies would not
hesitate in inscribing at least ‘shubha’ – auspicious, and ‘labha’
– profiting, Lakshmi’s attributes, on their chests, but despite
all that, she hasn’t many shrines, not even domestic, entirely
devoted to her in north and Central India at least. However, She
enshrines most sanctums with Vishnu, her spouse, such images
being known as Lakshmi-Narayana, Lakshmi preceding Narayana.

However in South, Lakshmi, as Padmavati and Shridevi, and
sometimes as Bhoodevi, is worshipped widely and independent of
Vishnu. Shridevi form of Lakshmi is so popular in South that even
the name of Vishnu, her lord, has changed to Shrinivasa – abode
of Shri, after her. However, different from Shri, Padmavati has
for South Indian masses some kind of mythical significance and
local connotation. As the mythological tradition has it,
Lakshmi’s form as Padmavati emerged when she re-united with
Vishnu after the latter left Baikuntha searching her and settled
on Tirumala hill of the Eastern Ghats in South. The part of the
Eastern Ghats, where lay Vishnu, curved like the great serpent
Shesh, Vishnu’s seat, and came to be known as Sheshachala.
According to the legend, the king, under whose reign fell the
Sheshachala hill, found that when back, a particular cow did not
have any milk in its udders. Cowherd had no satisfactory
explanation. One day, the king secretly followed the cow for
knowing what actually happened. He was amazed to see that milk
flew from the cow’s udders of its own as soon as she reached a
particular spot. He got the spot dug and to his utter surprise
from underneath revealed Lord Vishnu reclining there though in
the form of an image. He had Lakshmi in his bosom but not
manifest and the king did not see her. A temple was built and the
image, named Venkateshvara, was installed. After some days,
priests and devotees realized that a luster having a female form
sprouted like a lotus from within him. This divine realization
was given a form. It was Padmavati, Venkateshvara’s consort by
spiritual realization. Though Venkateshvara temple enshrined only
him, many temples were built independently for Padmavati all over
the South and she is now one of the utmost worshipped divinities
of South.

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This article by Prof. P. C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet

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The Mahabharata

Valmiki Ramayana

Vishnu Purana

Devi-Mahatmya part of Markandeya Puran

Brahmavaivarta Purana

Padma Purana

Puranic Encyclopaedia

Prachina Charitra-kosha

Dr. Daljeet and P. C. Jain : Indian Miniature Painting

Shanti Lal Nagar : Indian Gods and Goddesses

Maringer Johannes : The Gods of Prehistoric Times

W. J. Wilkins : Hindu Mythology

Devi : Goddesses of India : ed. John Stratton Hawley & Donna Marie Wulff

Lawrence Babb : The Divine Hierarchy : Popular Hinduism in Central India

P. C. Jain : Folk Arts of India (in press)

Sivaramamurti, C. Ethical Fragrance of Indian Art.

Kali: The Most Powerful Cosmic Female

Kali, the embodiment of three-aspected cosmic act, which reveals
in creation, preservation and annihilation, is the most
mysterious divinity of Indian religious order, Vaishnava, Shaiva,
Buddhist, Jain or any. She assures ‘abhaya’ – fearlessness, by
her one hand and ‘varada’ – benevolence, by the other, both
defining in perpetuity the ultimate disposition of her mind, but
in contrast, the feeling that the goddess inspires by her
appearance, plundering death with the naked sword carried in one
of her other hands and feeding on blood gushing from the bodies
of her kills, is of awe and terror. Instruments of destruction
are her means of preservation, and from across the cremation
ground, lit by burning pyres and echoing with shrieks of moaning
jackals and goblins, and from over dismembered dead bodies – her
chosen abode, routes her passage to life. The most sacred, Kali
shares her habitation with vile wicked flesh-eating ‘pishachas’ –
monsters, and rides a dead body. She is enamored with Shiva but
unites with Shiva’s ‘shava’ – the passive, enactive dead body,
herself being its active agent. She delights in destruction and
laughs but only to shake with terror all four directions, and the
earth and the sky. A woman, Kali seeks to adorn herself but her
ornaments are a garland or necklace of severed human heads,
girdle of severed human arms, ear-rings of infants’ corpses,
bracelets of snakes – all loathsome and horrible-looking. Such
fusion of contradictions is the essence of Kali’s being, a
mysticism which no other divinity is endowed with. Vashishtha
Ganapati Muni has rightly said of her:

“All here is a mystery of contraries,
Darkness, a magic of self-hidden light,
Suffering, some secret rapture’s tragic mask,
And death, an instrument of perpetual life.

Fusion of contraries – not just as two co-existents but as two
essential aspects of the same, is what defines Kali, as also the
cosmos which she manifests. As from the womb – darker than the
ocean’s deepest recesses where even a ray of light does not
reach, emerges life, so from the darkness is born the luminous
light, and deeper the darkness, more lustrous the light. A
realization in contrast to suffering, delight is suffering’s
glowing face – her child born by contrast. The tree is born when
the seed explodes and its form is destroyed, that is, the life is
death’s re-birth, and form, all its beauty and vigour, the
deformation incarnate. This inter-related unity of contraries
defines both, cosmos and Kali. The dark-hued Kali, who represents
in her being darkness, suffering, death, deformation and ugly, is
the most potent source of life, light, happiness and beauty – the
positive aspect of the creation. She destroys to re-create,
inflicts suffering so that the delight better reveals, and in her
fearful form one has the means of overcoming all fears, not by
escaping but by befriending them.

Light’s invocation is common to all religious orders and all
divinities; in Kali’s invocation, the devotee stands face to face
with darkness which aggregates death, destruction, suffering,
fear and all negative aspects of the universe. Not its prey but a
valiant warrior, the devotee seeks to overcome darkness and
uncover all that it conceals – light, life, delight, even
liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Kali assists him in
his battle. She allows her devotee to win her grace and command
thereby the total cosmic darkness – accessible or inaccessible,
known or unknown, or unknowable, that she condenses into her
being. Otherwise than thus condensed, the devotee could not
apprehend and command its cosmic enormity. Kali is Tantrikas’
supreme deity, for in her they discover the instrument which
enables them command diverse cosmic forces in one stroke. Kali’s
ages-long popularity among ignorant primitive tribes is inspired,
perhaps, by her power to reveal light out of darkness, something
that they have within and without and in great abundance. Other
way also, Kali assures light in perpetuity. Cyclically, a journey
that takes off from the light terminates into darkness but that
which takes off from the darkness is bound to land into the
valleys of endless light.

Invoking and befriending the awful – the negative aspect of the
creation, and warding off thereby evils and their influence, is a
primitive cult still prevalent in world’s several ethnic groups
and even classical traditions such as Buddhism that has a number
of Kali-like awe-inspiring deities,

or Athenian tradition of Nemeses, the wrathful maidens inflicting
retribution for a wrong and effecting purgation by way of
wreaking ill-fate. Not with such cosmic width as has Kali, or for
the attainment of such wide objectives as commanding cosmic
elements, motifs like the Chinese dragon, memento mori, a
skeleton form considered very auspicious by certain sections of
Russian society, Islamic world’s semurga, grotesque and dreaded
animal forms, ghost-masks. venerated world-over, all reveal man’s
endeavor to befriend, or mitigate the influence of some or the
other wrathful aspect of nature – the manifest cosmos.

Origin Of Kali

Not merely her form, mysticism enshrouds Kali’s origin also.
Among lines on which her origin has been traced three are more
significant, though she transcends even those. She is sometimes
seen as a transformation, or a form developed out of some of the
Vedic deities alluded to in Brahmins and Upanishads, mainly
Ratridevi, the goddess of dark night, also named Maha-ratri, the
Transcendental Night,and Nirtti, the cosmic dancer. Kali’s darker aspect is claimed to
have developed out of Ratridevi’s darkness, and her dance, which
she performed to destroy, to have its origin in the cosmic dance
of Nirtti who too trampled over whatever fell under her feet.
Mundaka Upanishad talks of seven tongues of Agni, the Fire-god,
one of them operating in cremation ground and devouring the dead.
Over-emphasizing the factum of association of Kali and this
tongue of Agni with cremation ground a few scholars have sought
in Agni’s tongue the origin of Kali’s form.

Whatever variations in their versions, the Puranas perceive Kali
as an aspect of Devi – Goddess, a divinity now almost completely
merged with Durga. However, considering Kali’s status as a
goddess within her own right, as well as her wide-spread
worship-cult prevalent amongst various tribes and ethnic groups
scattered far and wide in remote rural areas Kali seems to be an
indigenous, and perhaps, pre-Vedic divinity. As suggests the term
Kali, she appears to be the feminine aspect of Kala – Time, that
being invincible, immeasurable and endless has been venerated as
Mahakala – the Transcendental Time, represented in Indian
metaphysical and religious tradition by Shiva. In Hindu religious
terminology Mahakala is Shiva’s just another name. Like Shiva,
some Indus terracotta icons seem to represent a ferocious female
divinity that might be Kali or a form preceding her, and in all
probabilities, Shiva’s feminine counterpart. Buddhism, a thought
that opposed Vedic perception in most matters, inducted into its
pantheon Mahakala and a ferocious female divinity in her various
manifest forms, as Mahakala’s feminine counterpart. Obviously,
Buddhism must have inducted her from a source other than the
Vedic, as the Vedic it vehemently opposed. Invoked with great
fervor on many occasions in the Mahabharata, more especially in
Bhishma-Parva, just before Lord Krishna delivers his Gita sermon,
Kali seems to be a well established divinity during the Epic
days, that is, centuries before the Puranic era began. Though
invoked as ‘Arya’, a term denotative of great reverence, Arjuna
lauds her as tenebrous maiden garlanded with skulls, tawny,
bronze-dark. and with epithets such as Mahakali, Bhadrakali,
Chandi, Kapali ., the features yet relevant in Kali’s imagery. A
number of literary texts : Kalidasa’s Kumarasambhava, Subandhu’s
Vasavadatta, Banabhatta’s Kadambari, Bhavabhuti’s Malitimadhava,
Somadeva’s Yashatilaka., of the period from 2nd to 9th century,
also allude to Kali, a fact denotative of her great popularity in
realms other than religion. This Kali essentially transcends
Vedic Ratridevi, Maharatri, Nritti or one of Agni’s seven tongues
or a divine form grown out of any of them.

However, Kali cannot be attributed this or that mode of origin.
Even if a goddess of indigenous origin and one of primitive
tribes, she has far greater width and operativeness than the
non-operative boon-giving primitive deities usually had. Unless
her absolute ‘at homeness’ in the traditional Hindu line and her
status in it are sacrificed she can not be treated as a mere
tribal deity with indigenous origin. Alike, the tradition can not
owe her as absolutely her own creation unless her status of being
a goddess in her own right is compromised and she is reduced to
what she is not. Whatever her origin, perhaps indigenous, Kali
emerges in the tradition as its own with far greater thrust and
reverence than it attributed to others. Not a mere epithet or
aspect of another goddess, Kali has been conceived as the
Shakti – Power of Kala – Time.  Like Kala she pervades all
things, manifest or unmanifest. Puranas perceive Kali as Durga’s
personified wrath – her embodied fury, but in every case she is
her real Shakti. Even her own fury, Durga summons Kali to
accomplish what she herself fails to do. After Durga separates
Kali from her being and Kali emerges with a form of her own – an
independent being, she reigns supreme in entire Hindu pantheon as
regards the power to destroy and defeat enemies.

Not merely Durga’s Shakti, Kali has been conceived also as Lord
Shiva’s dynamic aspect. In a delightful equation, ‘a’, the main
component of ‘Shava’ and ‘Kala’, negates what ‘i’, the main
component of ‘Shiva’ and ‘Kali’, accomplishes. Shava is the
lifeless body, whatever is left of the manifest universe when the
Power of Time takes it under its control, and Kala is what
reveals only in the manifest aspect of the universe, and thus,
both are ‘timed’. When ‘i’, symbolic of the feminine energy which
manifests as Kali, unites into their beings transforming Shava
into Shiva and Kala into Kali, both emerge as ‘timeless’. In
Shiva this universe is contained, and hence, in him, the
transition from the ‘timed’ to the ‘timeless’ takes place. Kali,
being the Power of Time, does not undergo this transition.

Kali In Puranas

Allusions to Kali occur in some early Puranas too, it is,
however, the 5th-6th century Devi-Mahatmya, a part of the
Markandeya Purana, which comes out with her more elaborate vision
in regard to her origin, appearance, personality, power and exploits.

The Devi-Mahatmya comprises independent ‘Dhyana’ on Mahakali and
uses Kali’s names, such as Bhadrakali, Kalika, Chandika. as
epithets of Devi in its different parts; these are, however, two
episodes that give to her fuller exposure in regard to her
origin, role and other things. One of them relates to Chanda and
Munda, the ferocious demons she kills, and other, to Rakta-bija.

Defeated and thrown out of Devaloka – their abode, by demons
Shumbha and Nishumbha, erstwhile generals of Mahisha, gods lauded
Devi and invoked her to come to their rescue and free their abode
from the notorious demons. Devi, bathing in river Ganga as
Parvati, heard gods’ laudation and asked herself who they were
lauding, and when she so questioned, from her own being sprang up
a female form – a bewitching beauty that had unique luster,
teemed in great youthfulness, and was richly bejeweled and
brilliantly costumed. She replied that it was her they lauded.
She then proceeded to the region which demons of Shumbha’s army
swarmed and sat under a tree all alone. Hearing of her from a
messenger Shumbha intensely desired to marry her and sent to her
his proposal. However, the divine maiden sent back his messenger
with words that she would marry only such one who defeated her in
a battle. Thinking that a young maiden with no arms in hands was
hardly a challenge, Shumbha sent a small contingent to fight and
capture her. The Goddess defeated and destroyed it and one after
the other all contingents that followed. Finally, with a huge
army of demons under the command of their generals Chanda and
Munda Shumbha and Nishumbha themselves came to fight the Goddess.
Seeing Chanda and Munda advancing towards her the Goddess blazed
with fury. As the Devi-Mahatmya has it:

“From the knitted brows of her forehead’s surface
immediately came forth Kali,
with her dreadful face, carrying sword and noose,
she carried a strange skull-topped staff,
and wore a garland of human heads,
she was shrouded in a tiger skin, and looked utterly gruesome
with her emaciated skin,
her widely gaping mouth, terrifying with its lolling tongue,
with sunken, reddened eyes
and a mouth that filled the directions with roars.”

The Goddess asked Kali to destroy demons’ army, Chanda and Munda in particular, on which Kali inflicted great destruction all around, danced on the corpses, killed Chanda and Munda and as trophies of war brought to the Goddess their severed heads. The Goddess attributed to Kali the epithet of Chamunda – destroyer of Chanda and Munda. Deaths of Chanda and Munda greatly infuriated Shumbha and Nishumbha and with all demons at their command, which included the demon Rakta-bija and others of his clan, they attacked the Goddess and surrounded her along Kali from all sides. To face their massive number the Goddess summoned Sapta-Matrikas – Seven Mothers, Brahmani, Maheshwari, Kumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Narsimhi and Aindri, the powers of all major gods, Brahma, Shiva, Skanda, Vishnu and Indra.

 

A fierce battle ensued but what upset the Goddess most was the multiplication of Rakta-bija who had a boon to the effect that a new Rakta-bija demon would rise from wherever a drop of his blood fell. Finally, the Goddess called Kali to drink the blood of Rakta-bija before it fell on the earth. With a gaped mouth devouring hosts of demons and a tongue extended into all directions and moving faster than did the demon Kali consumed every drop of blood oozing from the wounds of Rakta-bija.

 

Not Devi-Mahatmya alone, almost all Puranas, Agni and Garuda in
particular, venerate Kali as the goddess who assures success in
war and eliminates enemies.

Skanda Purana links Kali’s origin to Parvati. Initially Parvati
had dark complexion for which Shiva used to tease her every now
and then. One day on being addressed twice as Kali –
black-complexioned, Parvati deserted Shiva. She said that she
would not return unless she got rid of her black complexion.
After Parvati left, Shiva felt very lonely. Taking advantage of
her absence and Shiva’s loneliness a demon named Adi, who was
looking for an opportunity to kill Shiva and avenge his father’s
death, disguised as Parvati and managed to enter into Shiva’s
chamber. It took some time but Shiva identified the demon, and
soon killed him. Meanwhile by rigorous penance and with Brahma’s
help Parvati was able to cast off her outer black sheath and from
inside emerged her golden form. Now Gauri – golden-hued, she came
back to Shiva. Gods, looking for a female form to kill Mahisha,
transformed with their luster this black sheath of Parvati into
Kali and after she had accomplished gods’ errand Parvati banished
her to the region beyond Vindhya Mountain. Here she became known as Katyayani

The Linga Purana contains yet another episode responsible for
Kali’s origin. A demon named Daruka had a boon that no other than
a woman would kill him. In view of reports of his atrocities
reaching him, Shiva one day asked Parvati to kill him. Thereupon
Parvati entered into the body of Shiva and from the poison
contained in his throat transformed herself and re-appeared as
Kali. She gathered an army of flesh-eating Pishachas and with
their help destroyed Daruka. The Skanda Purana further expands
the legend. Kali did not stop destruction even after killing
Daruka. Intoxicated by consuming poison and demon’s blood Kali,
uncontrollable as she was, went crazy and by her destructive
activities endangered cosmic equilibrium. Finally, Shiva
transformed himself as one of Kali’s own forms and sucked from
Kali’s breasts all poison after which she became quiet.

Though in a different context, an identical tradition prevails in
South India. After defeating Shumbha and Nishumbha Kali retired
to a forest with her retinue of fierce companions and began
terrorizing surroundings and its inhabitants. A Shiva’s devotee
went to him with petition to get the forest free of Kali’s
terror. When Kali refused to oblige Shiva claiming that it was
her domain, Shiva asked her to compete him in dance to which Kali
agreed, though unable, or perhaps unwilling, to reach Shiva’s
energy level she got defeated and left.

Though insignificantly, Kali’s origin has been linked also with Sati, Shiva’s first consort, and Sita, consort of Lord Rama. Insulted by her father Daksha the infuriated Sati rubbed her nose in anger and there appeared Kali. After conquering Ravana Rama was returning to Ayodhya. On his way, it is said, he confronted a monster that so much terrified Rama that in fear his blood froze. Thereupon Sita transformed herself as Kali and defeated it.

Kali : Appearance And Personality

Numerous are Kali’s manifestations; however, her external
appearance, both in texts as well as art, basic nature and
overall personality do not vary much. In her usual form the
black-hued Kali is a terrible awe-inspiring divinity frightening
all by her appearance. Except that some of her body parts are
covered by her ornaments, she is invariably naked. An emaciated
figure with long disheveled hair and gruesome face, Kali has been
conceived with any number of arms from two to eighteen, and
sometimes even twenty or more, though her more usual form being
four-armed. The four arms are interpreted as symbolizing her
ability to operate into and command all four directions, that is,
the cosmos in aggregate. She has long sharp fangs, alike long
ugly nails, a fire-emitting third eye on her forehead, a lolling
tongue and blood-smeared mouth, which, when expanded, not only
swallows hordes of demons but its lower part extends to ocean’s
depth and upper, beyond the sky. When required to lick blood
falling from a fleeing demon’s body she extends her tongue to any
length and turns it faster than the wind in whichever direction the blood falls.

In her more usual iconography Kali carries in one of her four
hands an unsheathed sword – her instrument to overcome enemies
and command evils, in another, a severed demon head, and other
two are held in postures denotative of abhaya and varada –
fearlessness and benevolence. Sometimes, the severed head is
replaced with a skull-bowl filled with blood.

Abhaya is the essence of Kali’s entire being. One of the
permanent dispositions of her mind, ‘abhaya’ is her assurance
against all fears which, embodied in her, are rendered
inoperative or to operate only as commanded. Denotative of her
boundless power to destroy, Kali’s frightening aspect is her
power to dispel evil and wicked, and in this the freedom from
fear is re-assured. Kali’s usual place is a battlefield where all
around lay scattered pools of blood, headless torsos, severed
heads, arms and other body-parts. When not in battlefield, Kali
roams around cremation ground where reigns death’s silence except
when yelling winds, groans of wailing jackals or sound of
fluttering wings of vultures tearing corpses lying around break
it. Its abyssal darkness, which flames of pyres occasionally lit,
is what suits Kali most. In battlefield or otherwise, she walks
on foot. Except rarely when she borrows or forcibly takes Durga’s
lion or Shiva’s Nandi, Kali does not use a mount, an animal or
whatever, either to ride or to assist her in her battle. She
dances to destroy and under her dancing feet lay the corpse of
destruction. Standing or seated, she has under her a sprawling
ithyphallic corpse, not lotuses, the favorite seat of most other
deities. She stands upon nonexistence – the corpse of the ruined
universe, but which nonetheless contains the seed of new birth.

In her imagery while the corpse represents non-existence or
ruined universe, Kali’s figure engaged in union either with Shiva
or his Shava symbolize continuum of creative process. The
manifest universe is what veils Time but when Kali, the Power of
Time, has destroyed the manifest universe, that veil is lifted
and Time, and correspondingly Kali, the Power of Time, is
rendered naked, a phenomenon that Kali’s naked form denotes.

By nature, Kali is always hungry and never sated. She laughs so
loud that all three worlds shake with terror. She dances madly
not merely trampling upon corpses but also on the live cosmos
reducing it to non-existence. She crushes, breaks, tramples upon
and burns her enemies or those of her devotees. Kali is not only
a deity of independent nature but is also indomitable, or rather
all dominating. She is Shiva-like powerful, unconventional and
more at home when dwelling on society’s margins. Aspects of
nobility or elite life-mode are not her style of life. She is
Shiva’s consort or companion but not Parvati-like meek and
humble. Herself wild and destructive, she incites Shiva to resort
to wild, dangerous and destructive behavior threatening stability
of cosmos. Every moment a warrior, Kali does not miss any
opportunity of war; She is one of Shiva’s warriors in his battle against Tripura.

Kali’s Forms

Far more than in texts, a huge body of Kali’s mythology has
evolved in Kali-related tradition. Apart that a rough-cut crude
image of Kali painted in black, and the tongue, in blood-red,
occupies a corner in every hamlet, even with a dozen hutments, it
also abounds in tales of her mysterious powers, both inflicting
damage and protecting from harm. More significant is her presence
in Indian art where she underlines many important Hindu themes.
What sometimes occur in texts as mere epithets of Kali are in
Indian arts her well established forms. Mahakali, Bhadrakali,
Dakshina Kali, Guhyakali, Shmashana Kali, Bhairavi,
Tripura-Bhairavi, Chamunda. are some of her more popular forms in
texts as well as art.

In her Mahakali form, an equivalent to Mahakala, the all-powerful
aspect of Shiva, who devours time and effects dissolution, Kali
is Mahakala’s feminine transform. In her form as Mahakali she
presides over the Great Dissolution which Shiva in the form of
Shava symbolizes.

In art, Kali invariably enshrines it. Initially, as Mahakali her
role was confined to demon-slaying. In Puranas, while still
representing dissolution, destruction, death and decay, she more
emphatically personified in her being horror, awe and
loathsomeness. She still slew demons but mostly when summoned and
in subordination.

In her form as Chamunda – the slayer of Chanda and Munda, she was
most ferocious multi-armed demon-killer. She carried in her hands
most deadly weapons and in her eyes a luster that burnt her enemies.

As Shmashana Kali, a form more popular in Tantrism, Kali haunts
cremation ground amidst burning pyres – the interim domain in
between this and the next world and where death and dissolution reign.

As Tripura-Bhairavi, consort of death, Kali is conceived with a
form wearing a large necklace of human bodies, a shorter one of
skulls, a girdle of severed hands, and ear-rings of the corpses
of infants. Around her lie a greater number of corpses and feed
on them wily jackals and vile vultures. Sometimes in loincloth,
Tripura-Bhairavi is more often covered in elephant skin and
carries other Shaivite attributes.

Elaborately jeweled Dakshina Kali also wears a long necklace of
severed heads, a girdle of unusually small severed arms and a
couple of corpses as ear-rings, but instead of being gruesome her
figure comprises smooth perfectly proportioned fully exposed
youthful limbs. She stands on the body of a supine ithyphallic
Shiva stretched out on an already burning pyre in cremation
ground where scavenging birds hover and jackals roam. Dakshina
Kali carries in one of her hands a sword, in another, a human
head, and other two are held in abhaya and varada. Bhadra Kali,
the auspicious one, Kali’s majestic, benign, benevolent and mild
form, has been conceived with arms varying in number usually two
to four. She often carries two bowls, one for wine and other for
blood. Kali’s form that gods, even Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma,
worship is invariably her Bhadra Kali form. The delightful one,
she joyously drinks, dances and sings.

Guhyakali, literally meaning ‘Secret Kali’, is Kali’s esoteric
aspect, which only those well versed in the Kali tradition know.

In the related ‘Dhyana’ – the form that reveals when meditating
on her, snakes constitute a significant part of her attire and
adornment. Her necklace, sacred thread, girdle, all are made of
serpents, and the thousand hooded serpent Ananta makes her
umbrella.  Apart, her form assimilates other Shaivite attributes
to include crescent on her forehead. In visual representation,
instead of snakes’ pre-eminence, Guhyakali is identified by the
Kali-yantra invariably represented along with.

Kali In Yoga And Tantra

Kali has quite significant place in Yoga and Tantra, though in
Yoga her status is not that high as in Tantra. Kundalini-sadhana,
kindling of Kundalini – dormant energy seen as black serpent that
lies coiled and asleep in the inner body, is the prevalent
practice in both but it is the very basis of Yoga. The Yoga
perceives Kali as Kundalini Shakti. Kali is thus the basis of
Yoga, though beyond such equation it does not involve Kali any
further. Tantra seeks its accomplishment in Ten Mahavidyas – the
Great Wisdoms, Kali, being the foremost among them, is the most
significant deity of Tantra.

Kali’s disruptive behavior, unkempt appearance, confronting
activities and involvement with death and defilement are what
better suit Tantra, especially the Vamachara Tantrism. Kali’s
form that contains in an unclean or even unholy body-frame the
highest spiritual sanctity helps Tantrika to overcome the
conventional notion of clean and unclean, sacred and profane and
other dualistic concepts that lead to incorrect nature of
reality.  Yogini-Tantra, Kamakhya Tantra and Nirvana-Tantra
venerate Kali as the supreme divinity and Nirvana-Tantra
perceives Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva as arising from Kali as arise
bubbles from the sea.

To the Tantrika, Kali’s black is symbolic of disintegration; as
all colors disappear in black, so merge into her all names and
forms. Density of blackness – massive, compact and unmixed,
represents Pure Consciousness. Kali as Digambari, garbed in
space – in her nakedness, free from all covering of illusion,
defines to the Tantrika the journey from the unreal to the real.
In full breasted Kali, symbolic of her ceaseless motherhood, the
Tantrika discovers her power to preserve. Her disheveled hair –
elokeshi, are symbolic of the curtain of death which surrounds
life with mystery. In her garland of fifty-two human heads, each
representing one of the fifty-two letters of Sanskrit alphabets,
the Tantrika perceives repository of power and knowledge. The
girdle of hands, the principal instrument to work, reveals her
power with which the cosmos operates and in her three eyes, its
three-aspected activity – creation, preservation and destruction.
Both Kali and Tantra are epitome of unity of apparent dualism. As
her terrifying image, the negative aspect of her being and thus
of the cosmos, is the creative life-force, the source of
creation, so in Tantra-sadhana, the journey takes off from the
‘material’ to the apex – the ultimate.

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This article by Sri P. C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet

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For Further Reading:

1.. Mahabharata, Gita Press Gorakhpur
2.. Shrimad Devi Bhagavata, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Pratishthan, Delhi
3.. Devimahatmyam, tr. By Devadatta Kali, Delhi
4.. Dahejia, Vidya : Devi, The Great Goddess, Washington D.C.
5.. Menzies, Jackie : Goddess, Divine Energy, Art Gallery, NSW
6.. Kinsley, David  : Hindu Goddesses, Delhi
7.. The Ten Mahavidyas : Tantric Vision of Divine Feminine, Delhi
8.. Hawley, J. S. & Wulff, Monna Marie (ed) : Devi, Goddesses of India, Delhi
9.. Hawley, John S. & Donna M. Wolfe (ed) : Devi : Goddesses of India, Delhi
10.. Rosen, Steven J. (ed) : Vaishnavi, Delhi
11.. Mitchell, A. G.: Hindu Gods and Goddesses, London
12.. Mookarjee, Ajit & Khanna, Madhu : The Tantrika Way, Boston
13.. Kanwar Lal : Kanya and the Yogi, Delhi
14.. Upadhyaya, Padma : Female Images in Museums of Uttar Pradesh and Their Social Background, Delhi

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Mother Goddess as Kali – The Feminine Force in Indian Art

The worship of a mother goddess as the source of life and fertility has prehistoric roots, but the transformation of that deity into a Great goddess of cosmic powers was achieved with the composition of the Devi Mahatmya (Glory of the goddess), a text of the fifth to sixth century, when worship of the female principle took on dramatic new dimensions. The goddess is not only the mysterious source of life, she is the very soil, all-creating and all consuming.

Kali makes her ‘official’ debut in the Devi-Mahatmya, where she is said to have emanated from the brow of Goddess Durga (slayer of demons) during one of the battles between the divine and anti-divine forces. Etymologically Durga’s name means “Beyond Reach”. She is thus an echo of the woman warrior’s fierce virginal autonomy. In this context Kali is considered the ‘forceful’ form of the great goddess Durga.

Kali is represented as a Black woman with four arms; in one hand she has a sword, in another the head of the demon she has slain, with the other two she is encouraging her worshippers. For earrings she has two dead bodies and wears a necklace of skulls ; her only clothing is a girdle made of dead men’s hands, and her tongue protrudes from her mouth. Her eyes are red, and her face and breasts are besmeared with blood. She stands with one foot on the thigh, and another on the breast of her husband.

Kali’s fierce appearances have been the subject of extensive descriptions in several earlier and modern works. Though her fierce form is filled with awe- inspiring symbols, their real meaning is not what it first appears- they have equivocal significance:

Kali’s blackness symbolizes her all-embracing, comprehensive nature, because black is the color in which all other colors merge; black absorbs and dissolves them. ‘Just as all colors disappear in black, so all names and forms disappear in her’ (Mahanirvana Tantra). Or black is said to represent the total absence of color, again signifying the nature of Kali as ultimate reality. This in Sanskrit is named as nirguna (beyond all quality and form). Either way, Kali’s black color symbolizes her transcendence of all form.

A devotee poet says:

“Is Kali, my Divine Mother, of a black complexion?
She appears black because She is viewed from a distance;
but when intimately known She is no longer so.
The sky appears blue at a distance, but look at it close by
and you will find that it has no colour.
The water of the ocean looks blue at a distance,
but when you go near and take it in your hand,
you find that it is colourless.”

… Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836-86)

Kali’s nudity has a similar meaning. In many instances she is described as garbed in space or sky clad. In her absolute, primordial nakedness she is free from all covering of illusion. She is Nature (Prakriti in Sanskrit), stripped of ‘clothes’. It symbolizes that she is completely beyond name and form, completely beyond the illusory effects of maya (false consciousness). Her nudity is said to represent totally illumined consciousness, unaffected by maya. Kali is the bright fire of truth, which cannot be hidden by the clothes of ignorance. Such truth simply burns them away.

She is full-breasted; her motherhood is a ceaseless creation. Her disheveled hair forms a curtain of illusion, the fabric of space – time which organizes matter out of the chaotic sea of quantum-foam. Her garland of fifty human heads, each representing one of the fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, symbolizes the repository of knowledge and wisdom. She wears a girdle of severed human hands- hands that are the principal instruments of work and so signify the action of karma. Thus the binding effects of this karma have been overcome, severed, as it were, by devotion to Kali. She has blessed the devotee by cutting him free from the cycle of karma. Her white teeth are symbolic of purity (Sans. Sattva), and her lolling tongue which is red dramatically depicts the fact that she consumes all things and denotes the act of tasting or enjoying what society regards as forbidden, i.e. her indiscriminate enjoyment of all the world’s “flavors”.

Kali’s four arms represent the complete circle of creation and destruction, which is contained within her. She represents the inherent creative and destructive rhythms of the cosmos. Her right hands, making the mudras of “fear not” and conferring boons, represent the creative aspect of Kali, while the left hands, holding a bloodied sword and a severed head represent her destructive aspect. The bloodied sword and severed head symbolize the destruction of ignorance and the dawning of knowledge. The sword is the sword of knowledge, that cuts the knots of ignorance and destroys false consciousness (the severed head). Kali opens the gates of freedom with this sword, having cut the eight bonds that bind human beings. Finally her three eyes represent the sun, moon, and fire, with which she is able to observe the three modes of time: past, present and future. This attribute is also the origin of the name Kali, which is the feminine form of ‘Kala’, the Sanskrit term for Time.

Another symbolic but controversial aspect of Kali is her proximity to the cremation ground:

O Kali, Thou art fond of cremation grounds;
so I have turned my heart into one
That thou, a resident of cremation grounds,
may dance there unceasingly.
O Mother! I have no other fond desire in my heart;
fire of a funeral pyre is burning there;
O Mother! I have preserved the ashes of dead bodies all around
that Thou may come.
O Mother! Keeping Shiva, conqueror of Death, under Thy feet,
Come, dancing to the tune of music;
Prasada waits With his eyes closed

… Ramprasad (1718-75)

Kali’s dwelling place, the cremation ground denotes a place where the five elements (Sanskrit: pancha mahabhuta) are dissolved. Kali dwells where dissolution takes place. In terms of devotion and worship, this denotes the dissolving of attachments, anger, lust, and other binding emotions, feelings, and ideas. The heart of the devotee is where this burning takes place, and it is in the heart that Kali dwells. The devotee makes her image in his heart and under her influence burns away all limitations and ignorance in the cremation fires. This inner cremation fire in the heart is the fire of knowledge, (Sanskrit: gyanagni), which Kali bestows.

The image of a recumbent Shiva lying under the feet of Kali represents Shiva as the passive potential of creation and Kali as his Shakti. The generic term Shakti denotes the Universal feminine creative principle and the energizing force behind all male divinity including Shiva. Shakti is known by the general name Devi, from the root ‘div’, meaning to shine. She is the Shining One, who is given different names in different places and in different appearances, as the symbol of the life-giving powers of the Universe. It is she that powers him. This Shakti is expressed as the i in Shiva’s name. Without this i, Shiva becomes Shva, which in Sanskrit means a corpse. Thus suggesting that without his Shakti, Shiva is powerless or inert.

Kali is a particularly appropriate image for conveying the idea of the world as the play of the gods. The spontaneous, effortless, dizzying creativity of the divine reflex is conveyed in her wild appearance. Insofar as kali is identified with the phenomenal world, she presents a picture of that world that underlies its ephemeral and unpredictable nature. In her mad dancing, disheveled hair, and eerie howl there is made present the hint of a world reeling, careening out of control. The world is created and destroyed in Kali’s wild dancing, and the truth of redemption lies in man’s awareness that he is invited to take part in that dance, to yield to the frenzied beat of the Mother’s dance of life and death.

O Kali, my Mother full of Bliss! Enchantress of the almighty Shiva!
In Thy delirious joy Thou dancest, clapping Thy hands together!
Thou art the Mover of all that move, and we are but Thy helpless toys

…Ramakrishna Paramhans

Kali and her attendants dance to rhythms pounded out by Shiva (Lord of destruction) and his animal-headed attendants who dwell in the Himalayas. Associated with chaos and uncontrollable destruction, Kali’s own retinue brandishes swords and holds aloft skull cups from which they drink the blood that intoxicates them. Kali, like Shiva, has a third eye, but in all other respects the two are distinguished from one another. In contrast to Shiva’s sweet expression, plump body, and ash white complexion, dark kali’s emaciated limbs, angular gestures, and fierce grimace convey a wild intensity. Her loose hair, skull garland, and tiger wrap whip around her body as she stomps and claps to the rhythm of the dance.

Many stories describe Kali’s dance with Shiva as one that “threatens to destroy the world” by its savage power. Art historian Stella Kramrisch has noted that the image of kali dancing with Shiva follows closely the myth of the demon Daruka. When Shiva asks his wife Parvati to destroy this demon, she enters Shiva’s body and transforms herself from the poison that is stored in his throat. She emerges from Shiva as Kali, ferocious in appearance, and with the help of her flesh eating retinue attacks and defeats the demon. Kali however became so intoxicated by the blood lust of battle that her aroused fury and wild hunger threatened to destroy the whole world. She continued her ferocious rampage until Shiva manifested himself as an infant and lay crying in the midst of the corpse-strewn field. Kali, deceived by Shiva’s power of illusion, became calm as she suckled the baby. When evening approached, Shiva performed the dance of creation (tandava) to please the goddess. Delighted with the dance, Kali and her attendants joined in.

This terrific and poignant imagery starkly reveals the nature of Kali as the Divine Mother. Ramaprasad expresses his feelings thus:

Behold my Mother playing with Shiva,
lost in an ecstasy of joy!
Drunk with a draught of celestial wine,
She reels, and yet does not fall.
Erect She stands on Shiva’s bosom,
and the earth Trembles under Her tread;
She and Her Lord are mad with frenzy,
casting Aside all fear and shame.

… Ramprasad (1718-75)

Kali’s human and maternal qualities continue to define the goddess for most of her devotees to this day. In human relationships, the love between mother and child is usually considered the purest and strongest. In the same way, the love between the Mother Goddess and her human children is considered the closest and tenderest relationship with divinity. Accordingly, Kali’s devotees form a particularly intimate and loving bond with her. But the devotee never forgets Kali’s demonic, frightening aspects. He does not distort Kali’s nature and the truths she reveals; he does not refuse to meditate on her terrifying features. He mentions these repeatedly in his songs but is never put off or repelled by them. Kali may be frightening, the mad, forgetful mistress of a world spinning out of control, but she is, after all, the Mother of all. As such, she must be accepted by her children- accepted in wonder and awe, perhaps, but accepted nevertheless. The poet in an intimate and lighter tone addresses the Mother thus:

O Kali! Why dost Thou roam about nude?
Art Thou not ashamed, Mother!
Garb and ornaments Thou hast none;
yet Thou Pridest in being King’s daughter.
O Mother! Is it a virtue of Thy family that Thou
Placest thy feet on Thy husband?
Thou art nude; Thy husband is nude; you both roam cremation grounds.
O Mother! We are all ashamed of you; do put on thy garb.
Thou hast cast away Thy necklace of jewels, Mother,
And worn a garland of human heads.
Prasada says, “Mother! Thy fierce beauty has frightened
Thy nude consort.

… Ramaprasad

The soul that worships becomes always a little child: the soul that becomes a child finds God oftenest as mother. In a meditation before the Blessed Sacrament, some pen has written the exquisite assurance: “My child, you need not know much in order to please Me. Only Love Me dearly. Speak to me, as you would talk to your mother, if she had taken you in her arms.”

Kali’s boon is won when man confronts or accepts her and the realities she dramatically conveys to him. The image of Kali, in a variety of ways, teaches man that pain, sorrow, decay, death, and destruction are not to be overcome or conquered by denying them or explaining them away. Pain and sorrow are woven into the texture of man’s life so thoroughly that to deny them is ultimately futile. For man to realize the fullness of his being, for man to exploit his potential as a human being, he must finally accept this dimension of existence. Kali’s boon is freedom, the freedom of the child to revel in the moment, and it is won only after confrontation or acceptance of death. To ignore death, to pretend that one is physically immortal, to pretend that one’s ego is the center of things, is to provoke Kali’s mocking laughter. To confront or accept death, on the contrary, is to realize a mode of being that can delight and revel in the play of the gods. To accept one’s mortality is to be able to let go, to be able to sing, dance, and shout. Kali is Mother to her devotees not because she protects them from the way things really are but because she reveals to them their mortality and thus releases them to act fully and freely, releases them from the incredible, binding web of “adult” pretense, practicality, and rationality.

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This article by Nitin Kumar

Tales of Ganga, The River Goddess

Ganga, the river or the goddess, or the river-goddess, a divine emergence: bounty of gods, or a mere geological phenomenon: result of a series of physical disturbances in Himalayan region, timed or the timeless, is now for ages core of faith of millions of Indians, north and south and east and west, and beyond. They have sought in gods the means of salvation but as much, or rather more often, mere fulfillment of worldly desires, in Ganga they have always found an inexhaustible source of their spiritual energy and a ladder to salvation accomplishing with a few drops of her water what long years of penance fail to do. She evokes desires and fulfills them but mundane hardly ever though abundant food and water are her generous bounties she bestows on all, unsought and sans demand. Ganga is now for ages a river, a physical entity, but the moment the term ‘Ganga’ enters into one’s ears the image that appears in the mind is certainly not one of a river. Ganga is a river beyond, and a spiritual realisation within – truer and more convincing.

Immense is Ganga’s mystique and sanctifying power. A dip in her waters is believed to accomplish what a journey to all Tirthas – holy shrines, does not do. The renowned art-historian C. Sivaramamurti has rightly recorded his ecstatic experience after he had a dip, the ever first in his life, in the holy river at Varanasi: ‘Everything looked so transformed, that I had the illusion I was transported to heaven and was actually bathing in the celestial stream’.

This mystic power of Ganga is not confined to transforming merely a routine act into a divine experience, a drop of her water intermingled with any quantity of water, even the ocean, infuses into it the same power to transport from this realm to another as Ganga herself has. As texts have it, streaming from Shiva’s coiffure to where the ashes of Bhagiratha’s ancestors lay, Ganga, when attempting at sweeping away the hermitage of sage Jahnu, was sipped by the enraged sage. Later, on Bhagiratha’s prayer, sage Jahnu released her from his ear. Though just incidentally, Ganga thus transmitted to human ears the sanctity of the place of her origin – wherefrom she emerged, so much so that ever since touching one’s ears before performing a rite or commemorating a deity is believed to have same sanctity as doing it after bathing in the holy waters of Ganga.

By her strange mystic powers Ganga makes every Indian feel her presence in his ears, something he believes without knowing its mythicism – Ganga’s ear-association or whatever, the same as blood runs in his veins without letting him realize or feel its volume, pace, or even its presence. In any event of a miraculous escape from a wrong, harm, catastrophe, or a mishap, the astonished hands instinctively rise to ears and touch them with reverence – a wordless pious expression of one’s gratitude to the Supreme, Ganga becoming his medium. Holding ears when apologizing for a wrong or ill – an ages old practice prevalent in India’s every part and every section of society, literate or illiterate, is the same as swearing by Ganga as to the genuineness of such apology.

Not merely as river that stretches across the entire subcontinent covering a distance of over 2500 kilometers – 2510 to be exact, Ganga, or whatever relates to her, has strange width – geographical, and on the scale of time. Ganga is contended to have been brought to the earth for a limited purpose: absolving Sagara’s sixty thousand sons of their sin. However, Ganga assumed this redeemer’s role for ever and for every one, and now for ages immersing material remains of the dead into her waters is believed to absolve him of all his sins and redeem him from the cycle of birth and death. The epithet ‘Tarini’ – one who redeems or absolves of sins, is exclusively Ganga’s.

Besides her power to redeem, sanctity is Ganga’s other exclusive domain. A deity, even one of the Great Trinity, acquires competence to preside over a Yajna, or any rite, only after he or she has been consecrated by ‘abhisheka’ – bathed with Ganga’s water, even symbolically: the first step in all sacrificial rites; and, the holy priest, as also the devotee hosting the ‘yajna’, will first purify their physical beings by rinsing their hands with Ganga’s water, and the intrinsic beings, by sipping a few drops of it, for it is only after the body and the soul have been purified that the offering they make is accepted. Whatever the symbolic stretch of the Sagara’s myth, lifeless ashes of his sixty thousand sons lying scattered over the bosom of an empty ocean and Ganga absolving them of their sins, or of reviving the ocean back to life with her waters, these are by the waters of Ganga, representing all rivers, that the life sustains in the ocean’s hard alkaline waters and under the layers of its unfathomable darkness, and volume and level of its fill are maintained.

GANGA BEFORE HER DESCENT

A river, or a goddess, accounts widely vary in regard to Ganga’s person, temperament and relationships, when she was in Vaikuntha. Mahabharata, the earliest text in which Ganga emerges with a decisive role, alludes to her as a goddess in anthropomorphic form, careless and vain. In the Mahabharata Ganga’s role as river is also as much significant, though even as river in her interaction with others – gods or human beings, Ganga has been conceived as having an anthropomorphic form.

The Mahabharata attributes Ganga’s descent from Vaikuntha to her carelessness. Once when in Vaikuntha, casually clad Ganga passes across or comes to where sat Brahma with other gods and royal sages, a gust of wind blows off her clothes exposing her figure to the embarrassment of Brahma and others. All in the assembly turn their eyes away from her except Mahabhisha, a prince of Ikshvaku dynasty elevated to Vaikuntha for his illustrious deeds. Mahabhisha keeps gazing at her. Displeased by her carelessness Brahma ordains Ganga’s expulsion from Vaikuntha and descent on the earth to be the wife of Mahabhisha who for impertinently gazing at Ganga’s figure, too, was to revert back to the earth and be re-born as a human being. Well acquainted with Ganga’s wilful nature Brahma provides that Ganga shall do things that will displease Mahabhisha but he shall bear them to an extent though finally when it becomes unbearable he shall break and chastise Ganga and with this he shall be absolved of his curse. With no chance of rectification Mahabhisha decides that he shall be born as the son of Pratipa, an illustrious king in the Lunar Dynasty.

Later texts have given to this simple version of the myth a dramatic twist. As such texts have it, once Lakshmi, Saraswati and Ganga, Mahavishnu’s three consorts, were sitting around chatting with him. Of all three Ganga, his wife with an unsteady nature, was casting on Vishnu sidelong glances to which he was secretly responding. Saraswati noticed it and when it became unbearable, she got up and began berating Ganga. Lest the things worsened, Lakshmi tried to intervene, though Lakshmi’s such intervention only further enraged Saraswati and she cursed Lakshmi to be born on the earth. Ganga chided Saraswati for cursing the well-meaning innocent Lakshmi and cursed her to descend on the earth as a river. Saraswati cursed her alike and also that as the river on the earth she would take upon her the sins of all born ones.

A neutral spectator, Vishnu, witnessing the entire drama with absolute composure, tells that whatever has happened was pre-scheduled. Lakshmi shall go to the earth as the daughter of Dharmadvaja though not born of any of his women. He foretells her role on the earth, the forms she shall manifest with, and finally, restoration of her prior status as his consort in Vaikuntha. As for Saraswati, Vishnu ordains that she shall be a river on the earth, though in due course with her divine form she shall return to Satyaloka and then she shall be Brahma’s consort. He tells Ganga that she shall go to the earth as a holy river that shall wash off the sins of all human beings. As scheduled, Bhagiratha, a prince of Ikshvaku Dynasty, shall lead her to the earth, which will give her a new name Bhagirathi. On the earth she shall be the wife of king Shantanu, one endowed with the ocean’s depth and quiescence; and, though her physical form shall remain on the earth, her divine form shall return to Mount Kailash as the consort of Shiva.

When disappointed and tired Ganga plods back, she meets Ashtavasus, alike tired and disappointed. Deluded by his wife one of them, named Dyau, in connivance with others had stolen Nandini, the holy cow of sage Vashishtha. For their misdeed the holy sage had cursed them to be born as human beings. Their efforts to appease the holy sage prevailed and the curse was modified to the effect that seven of them would die soon after their birth and return to Vaikuntha but the eighth, Dyau, who actually stole the cow would live his full tenure but will not have any offspring. When entreated, Ganga assured them that she shall bear them in her womb when she descends on the earth and marries Shantanu. Texts do not elaborate Ganga’s story in Vaikuntha any further till Bhagiratha by his rigorous penance persuades her to descend on the earth for absolving the sin of his ancestors.

GANGA, THE VISHNUPADI

These myths, as also a few others, perceive Ganga, when in Vaikuntha, as a goddess on par with Lakshmi and Saraswati, the two goddesses to whom the Rig-Veda has devoted a number of Suktas. The Rig-Veda is silent in regard to Ganga though two terms ‘Jahnavi’ and ‘Bhagiratha’ that have strong Ganga-contexts occurring in the Rig-Veda suggest the prior or at least contemporaneous presence of the two sages. As these myths have it, like Lakshmi and Saraswati, Ganga too does not appear to have emerged or been born at any point of time. Like them she too seems to have been ever present. However, another set of myths, two of them being major, times Ganga’s origin or birth and links it to Vishnu. One of these myths contends Ganga’s emergence from Brahma’s ‘Kamandala’, a widely believed proposition. Pleased by Bhagiratha’s rigorous penance Brahma agrees to send the celestial stream to the earth. To effect it, he pours some water from his ‘Kamandala’ on the feet of Vishnu. By the touch of Vishnu’s feet it expands into a huge stream. When this stream descends on the earth, Shiva bears it on his ‘Jata’ – coiffure. The myth is thus quite specific in regard to the source of Ganga’s emergence as also its time, though more than anything its object seems to emphasise Trinity’s unity for the myth represents Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva working as one unit in Ganga’s emergence on the earth.

Another Vishnu-related myth links Ganga’s origin to Vishnu’s Vamana incarnation. It is said that for spanning three worlds in three strides when Vishnu expanded his form and raised his left leg, hit by its nails the sky burst open and with a roaring sound a huge stream stormed the entire celestial region. Considering the sky – the entire celestial region, nothing but the expanse of Vishnu foot, texts prefer calling it as Vishnu-pada, and consequently Ganga emerging from it, as Vishnupadi – born of Vishnu-pada. For many eons Ganga streamed in the celestial region known as Dhruvamandala, astronomically the region around Polar Star, otherwise the seat of Dhruva, the son of king Uttanapada, where he sits fixed into penance. The Dhruvamandala was incessantly frequented by Sapta-rishis – seven stars representing Seven Sages who as frequently bathed in Ganga.

Ganga, after she emits Vishnu-pada, first comes to ‘Devayana’ – galaxy of crores of glittering stars known as Akasha-Ganga – Milky Way, and then to Chandramandala – the moon-region. With her objective to purify the whole world, not any specific region, from Chandramandala onwards Ganga bifurcates into four streams: Sita, Chakshus, Alakananda, and Bhadra, Sita falling on Mount Meru, Chakshus, on Malyavan, Bhadra, on Mount Shringavana, and Alakananda, on Mount Hemakuta. Sita drains Gandhamadana and through Bhadrashva falls into the eastern sea; Chakshus flows through Ketumala and falls into the western sea; Alakananda flows through Bharata Varsha and falls into the southern sea; and, Bhadra streams through Uttarakuru and falls into the northern sea.

GANGA: THE RIVER IN THE MYTH AND ON THE EARTH

This mythical Ganga reveals strange similarity with the river Ganga as she flows on the earth. As in the myth, Alakananda, with at least six significant tributaries, the confluence of which constitutes Ganga, joining her, Dhauliganga at Vishnu Prayaga, Pindar at Karna Prayaga, Nandakini at Nanda Prayaga, Mandakini at Rudra Prayaga and Bhagirathi at Deva Prayaga, appears to be the Ganga’s principal stream, though with Bhagiratha-myth being more deeply rooted into popular mind the status of the main stream is more often attributed to Bhagirathi. Bhagirathi is formed of snow-melt mainly at 7756 meters high Gangotri glaciers, to which other glaciers, especially those at peaks like Nanda Devi and Kamet, substantially contribute. Bhagirathi begins descending down at Gomukha, a place some 18 kilometers ahead of Gangotri. The river gets its name as Ganga after Deva Prayaga. At Deva Prayaga Alakananda, with six main streams being her tributaries, and Bhagirathi, the longest stream, join each other rendering it difficult to assign to either of the two status of the principal stream.

As the Ganga of the myth descends on Vishnu’s feet from Brahma’s Kamandala, Alakananda pours down at Badrinatha, which is Vishnu’s manifest body. It is only after the divine touch of his feet – foot of the cliff at Badrinatha, that the stream begins expanding and transforms into the massive form of Ganga. The Alakananda of the myth that drains Bharata Varsha has been perceived as falling into the southern sea. The river Ganga flows eastwards, though suddenly before she falls into the sea she takes a southward curve and falls in the Bay of Bengal on south. Both, the celestial stream of Chandramandala and Ganga on the earth, have strange similarity in regard to distributing themselves for covering larger areas with their benevolence, more so when moving from one region to other. When descending down from Chandramandala and entering the earth the celestial stream bifurcates into four streams. Similarly, when close to submerging into the sea, Ganga begins distributing herself giving birth to such mighty and useful streams as the rivers Hooghly and Padma. By her willful attrition she spreads over a delta not less than three hundred fifty kilometers in width. Proceeding ahead of her origin she gives refuge to many rivers; in the same way, when Ganga reaches close to her merger with the sea, she gives refuge in her bosom to several streams including Jamuna, a major tributary of Brahmaputra, and the great river Meghna. Ganga moves from the Himalayas and terminates her journey into the sea spanning the height of one and the depth of the other.

GANGAVATARANA: DESCENT OF GANGA

Whatever the later texts contend, as regards Ganga’s descent on the earth the legend of Bhagiratha is the earliest, logically elaborated and most widely accepted. Sagara, a king of Ikshvaku dynasty, was blessed with 60 thousand sons. On their strength Sagara performed Ashvamedha yajna. He deployed them to follow and protect the horse of the yajna. The horse moved round from one end of the world to another. However, when around the sea it disappeared. When matter was reported to king Sagara, he commanded his sons to search the animal everywhere. His sons dug the earth and reached the nether world where they found sage Kapila engaged in penance. Grown arrogant by their collective strength, they charged the sage of stealing the horse. The annoyed sage burnt them all save five by his great spiritual power. When entreated, the sage modified his curse to the effect that the waters of Ganga shall absolve them if the holy river descends on the earth from heaven. Sagara’s successors, Raja Dilip and others, did severe penance but with no result. When king Dilip was succeeded by his son Bhagiratha, he too resorted to rigorous penance lauding Ganga for her benevolence. Cursed by Brahma for her indecent manners Ganga was destined to descend on the earth. Hence, she conceded Bhagiratha’s prayers and persuasions and agreed to descend on the earth.

However, vain as she was, as also seeking to exploit the occasion for satiating her affection for Lord Shiva, she told Bhagiratha that the world would be washed off if her current fell direct on the earth and asked him to persuade Shiva to hold her upon his head when she descended from Vaikuntha. Bhagiratha again undertook rigorous penance and persuaded Shiva for it. ‘Kutila’ – crooked as Ganga is sometimes called, she designed to abduct Shiva by sweeping him with her current. However, defeating her designs Shiva plucked one of his hair and bore Ganga on it. Some texts say that annoyed Shiva arrested Ganga in his coiffure when she descended from heaven and it was only after fresh penance by Bhagiratha to appease him that Shiva discharged Ganga through one of his locks – alaka, which gave her Alakananda name.

Ganga created for Bhagiratha a fresh problem when attempting at sweeping the hermitage of sage Jahnu on her way to where lay the ashes of Bhagiratha’s ancestors she annoyed the holy sage who arrested her in his Kamandala and gulped her. It was only after a lot of persuasions by Bhagiratha that he was reconciled and released Ganga from one of his ears. Bhagiratha then led her to the nether world where his ancestors were burnt into ashes by sage Kapila. Ganga absolved them of their sin with her holy waters. After his ancestors have been absolved Bhagiratha conducted Ganga to sea which, lying empty for long, was filled with waters.

GANGA: WIFE ON EARTH

After Ganga emerged on the earth, her banks were penance-doers’ most favoured resort. Pratipa, a king of Lunar Dynasty, was childless. As advised by holy men for a son he immersed in deep rigorous penance on Ganga’s bank. He had on his face exceptional glow which had not diminished even after his long penance. One day Ganga saw him and fell in love with him. A young maiden with rare beauty, Ganga emerged from her waves, came to where king Pratipa was seated and sat on his right, asking him to accept her as his wife. Fixed into ‘Dharma’ – righteousness, the king declined her proposal. He told that she chose his right thigh, a children’s place, not wife’s; the wife’s place was left thigh. He, however, accepted her for his son who would marry her after he was born. Ganga then disclosed her identity and agreed to marry his son but on the condition that she would do whatever she liked and his son would not say a word against it, as also that the moment he opposed her for anything, she would desert him. Pratipa accepted her condition.

When Pratipa was close to old age, a son was born to him. The son was no other than Mahabhisha whom Brahma had expelled from Vaikuntha for his impertinence providing that he would marry Ganga when she descended on the earth. Born of penance the child had strange quiescence enshrining his face. Hence, the child was named Shantanu – one who is calm and composed. When Shantanu was young, Pratipa crowned him as the heir-apparent. Before he retired to forest, he called Shantanu and told him that a celestial maid would come to him with the proposal of marriage. He should marry her. He also told that she would do things that he would not like but he should not object to any. One day, after Pratipa had retired to forest and Shantanu became the king, he went to Ganga’s banks for hunting. Suddenly a young woman with exceptional beauty came to him and wished to marry him. As commanded by his father Shantanu married her.

Ganga had married Shantanu for a purpose. As promised, she had to absolve Ashtavasus of their curse. Within a year she bore seven sons, one by one, and threw each one into her waters. These were seven of the Ashtavasus she had promised to absolve by ending their lives soon after they were born. When the eighth child was born and Ganga set forth for throwing him into the river, Shantanu broke his pledge, censored Ganga and insisted to give him the child. As ordained, on his breaking the pledge Ganga deserted him and disappeared with the child. After thirty-six years Shantanu was one day hunting around the Ganga’s banks. He felt that Ganga did not have the usual sound that her mighty flow produced. He went close to the river and was amazed to see that by his arrows a boy had stopped the river’s entire stream and downwards she stood completely dry. When yet to collect himself, a celestial woman appeared. She was no other than Ganga. She disclosed that the boy was his own son she had brought up with the help of sage Vashishtha who had taught him archery. With this Ganga gave the boy to Shantanu along with all divine weapons that he had mastered and disappeared. The boy was named Devavrata, popularly known by the name of Bhishma, the great hero of the Mahabharata and the grandpa of both, Pandavas or Kauravas.

GANGA, THE MOTHER OF BRAVE AND MIGHTY SONS

A detached Ganga had given birth to Devavrata for keeping her words she had given to Ashtavasus but in thirty-six years’ time when he was with her Ganga had developed great affection for him. It was further deepened by her son’s noble deeds: his pledge not to ever marry for his father’s happiness, forego his claim to throne, his adherence to righteousness, his loyalty to the throne of Hastinapur beyond his personal feelings, and much more. Hence a loving mother, Ganga was always protective to her son and watched his life with a mother’s concern. For plotting against him she even fought with Amba, the daughter of the king of Kashi, frustrated in love for the failure of which she considered Bhishma responsible. Towards the end of his life, when hit by Arjuna’s arrows Bhishma lay on the bed of arrows awaiting the sun to move to Uttarayana – auspicious period for relinquishing ‘prana’ – life, Ganga sent to Bhishma sages doing penance on her banks, in their transform as geese, for blessing him in her behalf. Ganga herself appeared to quench her son’s thirst when he asked for water and Arjuna pierced the earth by his arrow for draining it. With ‘Bana’ – arrow, being the source of her emergence, texts name this transform of Ganga as Banaganga.

Bhishma was bound to the throne of Hastinapur and thereby to Kauravas but in his heart he loved Pandavas, Arjuna in particular. As reveals in a number of episodes in the Mahabharata, the son’s inclination was also the mother’s. This reflects in Ganga’s protective treatment of Pandavas to which those inhabiting her, Nagas – her essential components in particular, were also a part. During his exile one day when Arjuna went to Ganga for a bath, Ulupi, a Naga-kanya – mermaid, fell in love with him. Before Arjuna left, after staying with her in Ganga’s bottom – Ulupi’s abode, for a night, Ulupi pronounced that no aquatic creature would ever harm him and all those born of water would be under him. With designs to kill Bhima, the mighty Pandava, Kaurava prince Duryodhana invited Pandavas to a garden on Ganga’s banks under the pretext of water-sports. When with the effect of drug administered to them Pandavas swooned, Duryodhana got Bhima’s hands and legs roped and threw him into Ganga. But instead of killing him Ganga conducted him to her bottom which Vasuki, the king of Nagas – serpents, inhabited with his Nagas. Vasuki not only recognized Bhima but also welcomed him and gave him ambrosia to drink which redeemed him of his swoon and gave him timeless youth.

For giving birth to a mighty son like Bhishma, and for being instrumental in the birth of Karttikeya, the Commander-in-Chief of gods, Ganga is often revered as Vira-mata, the mother of brave and mighty sons. A strange co-incidence, one of her two sons Bhishma chose death when lying on the bed of Sharas – arrows, while the other, Karttikeya chose the bed of Sharas – grove of reeds, to be born on. Texts have called Ganga Nadi-matrika, the river-mother, for not a mere stream, with her bounties Ganga feeds many crores of people covering about one-third of the Indian subcontinent irrigating around one million kilometers of area. In many early sculptures dating back to the second century A. D., of Satavahanas from Amaravati and of Kushanas from Mathura, Ganga has been represented mostly as Nadi-matrika. Whatever her personality as a goddess, or wife, if the great river were a woman, as she essentially was and is, bounteous Ganga, the giver of food, water and refuge to every self, is the motherhood incarnate, the most accomplished aspect of womanhood.

GANGA AND ‘THREE’

‘Tri’ – ‘three’, has strange co-relation with Ganga. As river, from the north she flows southwards, then she takes an eastward turn, and finally before joining the sea, turns again to south – a ‘Tri-bhanga’ or three-curved form. Mythically she has her origin in Vaikuntha, then through celestial region falls on the earth and then proceeds to nether world where the ashes of Bhagiratha’s ancestors lay. Thus, traversing all three worlds she is ‘Tripathaga’. With a touch of Vishnu’s feet simple water of Brahma’s ‘kamandala’ expands into a mighty stream which Shiva bears on his head when it descends and then releases. Later, sage Jahnu does the same. Thus born of threes sources, Vishnu’s feet, Shiva’s coiffure and sage Jahnu’s ear, Ganga is said to be ‘Trisrota’. At Allahabad, she is joined by Yamuna and the unmanifest Saraswati and becomes known as Triveni – confluence of three rivers.

GANGA’S PRESENCE IN LIERATURE, ART AND INDIAN LIFE

Ganga, the river or the goddess, is the story of India’s civilization and culture, of the rise and fall of mighty empires, great kings, proud cities, venerated institutions, industry and trade, and adventures and endeavours of man. She does not have any significant presence in the Rig-Veda or rather in texts prior to the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, though the role and the decisive personality that she has in the epics suggest that Ganga might have taken a considerable period of time to attain such mythical status, in hierarchy and in mythical geography. Significantly, once she makes a debut, her presence floods all creative domains – literature, architecture, sculpture and coins. The renowned second century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa has lauded Ganga in almost all his works, Raghuvansha, Meghaduta and Kumarasambhava in special. In sculptures also, she begins appearing from second century. A number of Satavahana and Kushana sculptures, both from the second century A. D., are found representing Ganga in her Nadi-matrika manifestations.

Ganga’s crocodile-riding reliefs on door-jambs had become an essential component of temple-architecture from fourth-fifth century itself. This status of Ganga as the guardian deity was ever since unsurpassed. Temples built by all major building dynasties, the great Guptas, early and late Western and Eastern Chalukyas, Gurjara-Pratihara, Pallava, Pala, Sena, Vakataka, Rashtrakuta, Pandya, Hoyshala, Chola among others covering, besides India, also Nepal, Java and Bangladesh, have on their doorjambs statues of Ganga and Yamuna as their guardian deities. The Chola king Rajendra not only have images of Ganga on the doorjambs of his Shiva temple named Gangaikondacholapuram but also built a tank named Cholaganga and fetched a lot of Ganga-water for filling it. He is known to have invaded subcontinent’s northern part and the defeated kings were required to pay him the tribute only in the form of Ganga-water to fill Cholaganga.

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For further reading:

Ramayana

Mahabharata

Bhagavata Purana

Devi Bhagavata

Agni Purana

Vaikuntha Purana

Puranic Encyclopedia

Prachina Chritra Kosha

Kalidasa: Kumarasambhava; Raghuvansha; and Meghaduta

C. Sivaramamurti: Ganga

P. C. Jain & Dr. Daljeet: Karttikeya, December, 2010, Exoticindia.com

Balasubrahmaniam: Early Chola Temples

Barret, Douglas E.: Sculptures from Amaravati in the British Museum, London

Hopkins, E. W.: Epic Mythology

Saraswati, S. K.: A Survey of Indian Sculptures

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This article by Prof P. C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet

Sita – The Personification of Divine Womanhood

 Sita, the daughter of Siradhvaja Janaka, the king of Videha, known in the literary and Puranic traditions also as Janaki,Vaidehi, Bhumija, Agnija, Matulingi, Ratnavali, Dharinija, Raktaja etc., contextual to various myths related to the circumstances of her birth, was the consort of Lord Rama, the eldest son of Ayodhya’s king Dasharatha, and the mother of the illustrious sons Lava and Kusha. Sita’s names Janaki and Vaidehi relate respectively to Janaka, her father, and to Videha, the land that her father represented. Bhumija, born of ‘bhumi’ – the earth, relates to the most widely accepted circumstances of her birth under which she is said to have risen from the earth when king Janaka ploughed it for installing ‘Agni’ of yajna – fire of sacrificial rite that accepted oblation made in the course of the yajna. It was customary to plough the land where the Agni of yajna was installed. With ‘dharini’ being another synonym for ‘bhumi’ her name Dharinija has same connotation as Bhumija. Agnija, born of fire, Matulingi, born of great phallus, Ratnavali, born out of jewels, and Raktaja, born of blood, refer to other myths that the tradition associates with the incidence of her birth.

Apart a few allusions to term ‘sita’ in the Vedic literature denoting an entirely different entity, the great epic Ramayana by Valmiki, believed to have been composed during Rama’s lifetime itself, is the earliest known source of the story of Rama.

The Ramayana does not deify either Rama or Sita, its hero and heroine; however it fails to contain them in human frames often allowing them to transgress it and acquire quasi-divine status. The Ramayana mythicises at least the circumstances of the birth of Sita, as also Rama, and often elevates their glory to heights beyond human domain. The Puranic tradition elevates Rama, and of course Sita, to the divine status revering Rama as Lord Vishnu’s incarnation, and Sita, as Lakshmi’s. The factum of Vishnu’s incarnation as Rama has been interpreted in terms of Rama’s act of eliminating Ravana, Lanka’s demon king, and Lakshmi’s, as Sita, in presenting a rationale – a righteous reason for Rama’s act of Ravana’s annihilation.

Sita has not only kept to the right track Indian womanhood, affording it the most perfect model of a devoted wife and ideal mother but with Rama is for centuries now the core of faith of millions of Indians who find in them the prime source of their spiritual energy as well as material well-being, a ladder that led to salvation as also to mundane heights, a model for righteous living, ideal home and perfect society, and a stay to tag with all their woes and miseries, achievements and failures, prospects and disappointments, strength and weaknesses, all auspices, occasions of rejoicing and all festivities. Sita, like Rama, her husband, seems to be one beyond time.

SITA IN LITERATURE PRIOR TO THE RAMAYANA

Sita, the term literally meaning ‘furrow’, the line made by plough, is the Vedic name of the goddess associated with the ploughed fields. In one of the hymns in the Rig-Veda this goddess manifesting furrow line is invoked jointly with Kshetrapati, the lord of fields, for blessing with prosperity and abundance. Obviously, the invocation is directed to the ploughed land’s inherent fertility power which being capable of bestowing prosperity and abundance is divine and is hence deified and invoked. However, this Vedic stand in regard to Sita is not uniform. In Kaushika Sukta Sita has been identified as the wife of Parjanya, a god associated with rain. She has been invoked as the ‘mother of all gods, mortals and creatures’ and is prayed for growth and prosperity. But, in the Paraskara Sukta, she has been identified as the wife of Indra, the Vedic god with greater magnitude often associated with rain and fertility.

This position further changes in Samhitas. Under a practice during post-Rig-Vedic period, there came to prevail a practice which required due ploughing of the ground where the fire for yajna was to be installed. Obviously it aimed at ensuring that the yajna charged the ploughed fields with fertility and enabled them for yielding abundant crop. The practice, called Agnichayana – selection of site for installing yajna-fire, was something like a quasi-ritual. The Vajasaneyi-Samhita attributes to this practice the status of a proper ritual providing that yajna-bhumi should have drawn on it four furrow lines and when drawing these lines Sita – the goddess associated with ploughed field, should be invoked with prescribed hymns. This linked emergence of Sita in the mind of yajnika – performer of yajna, with the act of ploughing the yajna-bhumi. As is commonly contended, once when ploughing a part of land for consecrating it for yajna there rose from under it a young girl that king Janaka brought home, adopted her as his daughter and in consideration of her emergence from the furrow-line named her Sita. Tulsidasa also followed this rather simple line on the incidence of Sita’s birth. In any case, Valmiki seems to have seen in his Sita the same forbearance, steadfastness, divine spirit to suffer without grudge and always being on giving end as should have characterised the earth-born – one manifesting the earth’s inherent spirit in its totality.

VARIOUS INCARNATION-MYTHS

LAKSHMI’S INCARNATION BY THE CURSE OF SARASWATI

The Devi Bhagavata, Kamba Ramayana and many Puranas almost unanimously hold that Sita was Lakshmi’s incarnation. The myth in Devi Bhagavata and Kamba Ramayana links Vedavati, Panchali and Tulsi, too, with Lakshmi’s incarnation cult consequentially to Sita. As these texts have it, once, in Baikuntha – Vishnu’s abode, his all three consorts, Lakshmi, Ganga and Saraswati were sitting with Vishnu. To her annoyance Saraswati noticed that Ganga was enticing him by her tempting glances. Saraswati admonished her for this and a quarrel ensued. Lakshmi, too, in her effort to calm down Saraswati, annoyed her. Infuriated she cursed Lakshmi to be born as a plant. With no fault of her Lakshmi, enraged with Saraswati’s unjust behaviour, also retaliated and cursed her to turn into a river. Saraswati also cursed Ganga to become a river. After the rows of curses was over, Vishnu explained to Lakshmi that she would take birth as the daughter of Dharmadhwaja on the earth with Tulsi as her name, and from a portion of her would grow a plant of the same name.

Dharmadhwaja and Kushadhwaja were the sons of Rathadhwaja and the grandsons of Vrashadhwaja. Vrashadhwaja was Shiva’s devotee. He hence promulgated the worship of Shiva in exclusion to all other gods. This annoyed all gods. Consequently Surya cursed Vrashadhwaja depriving him and his descendents of all their riches and lustre. The curse instantly worked. For redeeming themselves and their descendants from the curse Dharmadhwaja and Kushadhwaja, Vrashadhwaja’s descendents in the third generation, did great penance to please Lakshmi who alone could revive their glory. Satisfied with their great austerities Lakshmi appeared and as desired promised Dharmadhwaja and Kushadhwaja to take birth as the daughter of each of them. In due course Dharmadhwaja’s wife Madhavi gave birth to a girl child. They named her Tulsi. The child was born by a portion of Lakshmi. His brother Kushadhwaja along with his wife Malavati also awaited Lakshmi to take birth as their daughter. Lest he transgressed from his path he was always reciting hymns from the Vedas. One day when so reciting Vedic hymns there emerged from his mouth a child with divine aura on its face. The child was no other than the one born by another portion of Lakshmi. Kushadhwaja named the child Vedavati, sometimes alluded to as Devavati. One day, a demon named Shambhu came to the hermitage of Kushadhwaja. He saw Vedavati and fascinated by her tempting beauty desired to marry her. He asked Kushadhwaja for her hand but Kushadhwaja refused. This annoyed Shambhu but he went away. However, he came back in the night and killed Kushadhwaja. Hearing her father’s shriek Vedavati rushed to him. When she found him lying in a pool of blood, her eyes burnt with wrath. With her fiery eyes she looked at the demon and in a moment he was burnt to ashes.

Left alone Vedavati retired to Himalayas where determined to have Mahavishnu as her husband she began performing severe penance. It was around the same time when Ravana was on his victory campaign and having defeated most of the kings of plain was in Himalayan region. Suddenly he saw Vedavati engaged in penance. Her celestial beauty mesmerized him. He went to her and asked to give up her bark clothes and matted hair and marry him, and when she refused, caught her hold and began dragging her forcibly. Vedavati resisted, even hurt him with her nails and teeth, but when unable to protect her, she wished that the mortal body which a wicked man had rendered impure by his touch be destroyed. Her divine wish worked, and the very moment there rose from the earth a celestial fire and Vedavati jumped into it and turned into ashes. Before she immolated her she warned Ravana that she would be re-born as Mahavishnu’s consort and for her Mahavishnu would kill him. She would be thus the cause of his destruction.

Ravana, deeply engrossed in her love, was shocked at the loss of such paramount beauty. He collected her ashes in a golden box, brought them to Lanka and consecrated them at a secluded place which he visited everyday. However, since that day Lanka everyday witnessed one bad omen or other. One day Narada visited Lanka. Ravana asked him the cause of these bad omens and how he could get rid of them. Narada explained that their occurrence was linked with Vedavati’s ashes and advised him to shift them out of Lanka without opening the box. He warned that a great disaster would take place if the box was opened. As advised, Ravana instantly picked the box from its place and dropped in into the ocean. One day a gang of pirates saw it. They collected and carried it to Indian main land, their home. However, whenever they tried to open it something untoward occurred. Out of fear they buried it into a pit near a river in Mithila region without opening it. After some time king Janaka selected the spot where lied buried this box for installing agni for the performance of his yajna and ploughed it. While ploughing it the box was unearthed and from it emerged a girl child. United with the spirit of Vedavati and the holy ambience of Videha the ashes contained in the box had transformed into it. Janaka brought the child to his palace where it was received with royal grandeur and was named Sita.

SITA AS PADMA

The myth in the Ananda Ramayana links Lakshmi’s incarnation as Sita to king Padmaksha. Once with the objective of obtaining Lakshmi as his daughter king Padmaksha did severe penance which pleased Mahavishnu who gave him ‘Matu-linga’, and thereby a daughter was born to him. It is in context to this Matu-linga myth that Sita is sometimes alluded to as Matulingi. Padmaksha named his daughter Padma. When of marriageable age, Padmaksha held his daughter’s Swayamvara – bride wedding by her own choice out of the suitors participating in it. However, before the Swayamvara was accomplished a band of rakshasas – demons, stormed the venue, destroyed everything and killed king Padmaksha. Unable to protect her otherwise Padma, foiling the attempt of rakshasas to obtain her, jumped into fire and disappeared.

After some time Padma emerged from fire. It was for her emergence from fire that Sita is sometimes alluded to as Agnija – born of fire. Incidentally, at the time when she emerged from fire Ravana, flying in his Pushpaka Vimana – aircraft named Pushpaka, passed over the spot and saw Padma. Infatuated by her rare beauty he got down with the intention of obtaining her. However, before he could reach her she created fire by her will, entered into it and burnt. Ravana searched the pile of burning wood and found in it five jewels into which Padma had transformed. Ravana collected them and put them into a gold-box and when back to Lanka gave to his wife Mandodari. A few days later Mandodari opened the box and to her utter dismay found sitting into it a virgin with rare beauty. It shook Mandodari with fear for being the cause of the destruction of her father Padmaksha, his family and state Mandodari believed that the presence of the girl in Lanka would only inflict destruction on it. She hence pressurized her husband to cast the box outside Lanka. Ravana carried it to Mithila and buried it there. Before the box was buried a voice from inside the box warned Ravana that she would again come to Lanka and kill him and his clan. One day, a Brahmin, while ploughing his field, found the box, and as required the prevalent practice in regard to underground things, he carried the box to king Janaka who opened it and found in it a beautiful child. He adopted her and named her Sita.

SITA AS RAKTAJA

Though it yet relates to Sita and Ravana, the Adbhuta Ramayana has a different version of the myth. Having grown immensely powerful Ravana’s excesses were on increase. He was particularly cruel to sages of Janasthana engaged in penance. He took delight in shooting his arrows on them and collected in a big pot the blood that these arrows extracted from their bodies. Those days Janasthana had a great sage known as Gratsamada engaged in rigorous penance for obtaining a daughter such as would equal Lakshmi in every thing. In his own way he recited a hymn and when concluding it he would take a little milk on a Dharba grass-leaf and pour it into a pot. As if making oblation to the divine power he was dedicated to, he repeated it with recitation of each hymn believing that the day the pot was full his wish would also be accomplished.

Ravana who sought great delight in tormenting sages engaged in penance knew that deprivation of his ritual pot would more grievously torment Gratsmada than would do any of his arrows. Hence, one day Ravana rushed into the hermitage of Gratsmada and carried away his pot of milk. He poured the milk that the Gratsmada’s pot contained into his pot filled with the blood of the sages, shook it thoroughly and gave it to his queen Mandodari to keep it. Ravana’s cruelties and misdeeds were on increase everyday which Mandodari did not like. Annoyed as she was, Mandodari one day decided to commit suicide and with such intention swallowed the contents of the pot. However, instead of bringing death it made her pregnant. Fearing Ravana’s contempt she buried that foetus at Kurukshetra. After sometime from the spot where the foetus was buried there emerged a girl child that king Janaka adopted with Sita as her name. This myth gives Sita her name Raktaja, one born of blood.

SITA AS RAVANA’S DAUGHTER

The Devi Bhagavata comes out with a strange myth. This myth acclaims Sita to be Ravana’s daughter. On Ravana’s proposal to marry Mandodari, her mother Maya gave her consent but warned him at the same time that according to Mandodari’s horoscope her first child was destined to kill its father. Hence, he should kill the firstborn. However, Ravana did not act upon her advice. Instead of, he put the newborn into a box and buried it at the city of king Janaka. Later, Janaka discovered her, adopted her and named her Sita who as Rama’s consort was instrumental in Ravana’s elimination.

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN SITA’S LIFE

Rama being the focal point of the Rama-katha, Sita’s presence in it is not very regular. In the tradition of thought she represents Devi – primordial female energy, but not her operative aspect as does Durga or Kali. She is not seen operating or taking even a decision except rarely as when she decides to go with Rama during his exile, though here, too, with whatever her arguments she convinces Rama to permit her to accompany him, that is, it is finally Rama who takes the decision. Though myths in different Puranas vary to this extent or that, Sita’s ability to handle Shiva-chapa – Shiva’s bow, prompts king Janaka to give her in marriage only to a prince who is capable of lifting, stringing and shooting Shiva’s bow. Janaka holds Sita’s swayamvara – marriage-festival which allowed a bride to have a groom by her own choice. However Janaka’s pre-condition, as also myths related to her marriage, makes Sita’s swayamvara a bit different. Not merely that Lakshmi had incarnated as Sita to assist Vishnu incarnating as Rama, and hence their marriage, a pre-scheduled thing, but in literary tradition too, Rama was Sita’s choice. However, the apparent decision mandating her to wed Rama was Janaka’s, her father, not Sita’s. Sita only complied with what her father decided.

Sita reveals an independent mind on other occasions too, but does not ever thrust her decision. When at Dandakavana, Rama assures sages doing penance there to kill rakshasas interrupting their austerities. Sita does not approve this decision of Rama, and for quite valid reasons; firstly, she contends that rakshasas had not harmed Rama or his family in anyway, and secondly, in the forest he was not Ayodhya’s prince but one exiled from that position, and that the arms that he carried were for self defense or to protect the weak, not for resorting back to that princely position from which he stands exiled for fourteen years. However, despite that she gives her mind, she leaves it to Rama to decide his course of action. A mother with a kind heart, Sita instinctively dislikes violence against anyone, even those tormenting her. When Hanuman inclines to punish wicked rakshasis at Ashoka-vatika where Sita was in confinement, she disallows him from doing so. She is as much worried when she knows how Hanuman was being tormented by setting his tail on fire. She prays Agni to protect him.

Whatever the myths of her origin, in spirit and her entire being Sita represents as Lord Rama’s consort what Lakshmi represented as Vishnu’s in theological tradition – absolute devotion, unshakable faith, chastity, service, constant companionship and a desire to help accomplish his cause, besides her unique divinity with which blends the highest kind of womanhood.

As in Lakshmi-related myths, Sita’s ever faithful and calm mind agitates just once when on sage Valmiki’s initiative Rama agrees to accept her but only after she once again gives proof of her chastity. Her apparently cool but agitating mind does not accept it. Lest she is mistaken, she takes vow of chastity – her ever last, only for invoking gods to be her witness and the mother earth to yield space and take her back into her womb; and thereupon the earth, perhaps in disapproval of Rama’s demand, opens up, and Sita enters the earth.

Earlier after Ravana had been killed and Lanka conquered, when brought before Rama, he questioned her chastity and asked her for giving its proof, and despite that Rama’s words were harsh and disparaging, Sita, besides taking oath of chastity, coolly entered the fire in the presence of all – men, animals, gods, demons, sages, kinnaras, gandharvas and other celestial beings without grudge or disapproval. The fire that burnt impurity had nothing to burn in Sita, not even her garments – the purest ones, and the fire god himself brought her back and presented her to Rama. Her chastity was thus universally approved. However, when in compliance with Rama’s order Lakshmana abandoned her – a pregnant woman, in forest, a non-complaining, calm and discreet Sita only took it as a compulsion of a king. Before the incidence, when Rama was only meditating on banishing her in consideration of public opinion, and was in great strain, she asked him that she wished to go on a trip to forest, obviously for relieving him of his strain and making it easier for him to leave her there quietly.

And, such efforts seeking to minimize Rama’s strain Sita had always done. When Rama feared that the forest life, and that too for fourteen years, would be difficult for Sita, she relieves him of his reluctance by telling him that astrologers, considering the position of planets at the time of her birth, had predicted that she would pass a part of her life in the forest. Thus, she assured that going to forest was her destiny which his company would only render easier. But this time Rama’s inability to secure her honour despite that he admitted that she was chaste and Lava and Kusha were his sons, hurt her deeply, as was hurt Lakshmi when with his leg sage Bhragu had hit Vishnu on his chest, insulting her too along with him, and Vishnu, securer of her honour, only bore it as his obligation to a sage. A sage’s unbridled act or a misled public opinion could be compulsions of gods and kings but an honour-loving mind, whether enshrining a divine frame or human would not bear it, and Sita, and of course Lakshmi who she incarnates, presents its ultimate example. Sita’s sense of honour and propriety over-rides her temptation to go back to Rama not now alone but always. When in Ravana’s custody at Ashoka-vatika in Lanka, she declines Hanuman’s proposal to take her back to Rama. Confidant as she was she tells him that Rama would one day defeat Ravana and take her back; and also that it would be unbecoming of Rama and disgrace him if she slips from here like a thief as Ravana had brought her.

In the Rama-katha, Sita’s is often a presence, though sometimes it completely changes the course of events. Sita is undemanding and is contented in every situation. However, at Panchavati she beholds a golden deer passing across their hut and tempted by its beauty asks Rama for its skin. The deer was Marichi, a demon in transform sent by Ravana who incited by his sister Surpanakha had designs to abduct Sita by deceit as in fair war he could not defeat Rama. First Rama and then Lakshmana go after the deer and taking advantage of their absence Ravana, disguised as an ascetic come for alms, succeeds in abducting Sita. Before Rama could realise it the mischief had been done. Sita does not have any active role in it but her mere presence or simple eagerness leads to annihilation of Ravana, the objective for which Vishnu had incarnated as Rama.

If anything, it is Sita’s divinity, which reveals not merely in her sublimity, chastity, unshakable devotion and in her instinctive detachment towards all things that the world of men or gods had, but also in Ravana’s fear of her, that works in the Rama-katha. Convinced of her divine powers a wicked person like Ravana does not dare even touch her. A Ravana, endowed with power of undoing all weapons, those of men or gods, fears even the straw that Sita waves towards him, believing that charged with her divine powers this straw would destroy him as the fire destroyed a straw.

SITA’S RARE MIGHT

Rama-katha is the witness not merely of Sita’s spiritual power but also the might that enshrined her physical body. Once, Parashurama, the great Brahmin warrior, came to Janaka’s court with his bow. It was so heavy that not less than two hundred fifty pairs of bulls could transport it. Sita slipped away with the bow and using it as a dummy horse began playing with it. Parashurama, amazed as he was when he saw Sita playing with his bow, advised king Janaka to marry her to a prince who broke it. As per the Kamba Ramayana, the Shiva’s bow, which he had used in early days for destroying the yajna of Daksha Prajapati, for avenging the death of Sati, his consort and the daughter of Daksha Prajapati, was a holy relic in the personal shrine of king Janaka. It was given to one of Janaka’s ancestors in older days by Shiva himself. Not able to reach the height of jasmine creeper for plucking flowers from it, Sita rushes to the palace shrine and returns with the Shiva’s bow with which she shoots an arrow and a multitude of flowers fall. Janaka saw all this from a window proclaimed that Sita shall be married only to him who is capable of taking, drawing and shooting the Shiva-chapa – Shiva’s bow.

SITA’S WOMANHOOD

In Sita’s sarcastic remarks and threat to commit suicide when Lakshmana shows his reluctance to leave her alone and go to help Rama who had gone to hunt the golden deer there reflects the same frame of mind as of a common woman. However her anger transforms into her repentance the moment she finds that Ravana had abducted her. For a while fear grabs her but instantly the presence of mind works and she drops her ornaments etc. the moment she sees some persons on a hill top. With her loyalty, devotion and sacrifice she so inspires Rama that even after she had been banished Rama does not think of marrying another woman, not even for ritual needs of Rajasuya yajna, despite that polygamy was a common feature among Kshatriyas those days or even later. Every woman’s aspiration, Sita initiated the cult of monogamy, a husband’s adherence to one wife, and a wife’s total dedication to her husband. When Rama tried to frighten Sita with difficulties of forest life and its horrible face, she dismissed everything just in a single sentence : ‘where there is Rama there is Sita’. It defines why in ‘Sita-Rama’ the tradition allocates first salutation to Sita, not Rama.

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This article by Prof. P.C. Jain and Dr Daljeet

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For further study

Devi Bhagavatam, Varanasi, Gita Press, Gorakhpur

Harivamsha’ Poona

Mahabharata, Gita Press, Gorakhpur; Poona; Calcutta.

Padmapurana, Gita Press, Gorakhpur

Prabandha Kosha (Rajashekhara), Shantiniketan

Rig-Veda

Rig-Veda Samhita, edited by F. Maxmuller; English trans. by H. H. Wilson, Poona.

Valmiki Ramayana, Gita Press, Gorakhpur

Ramacharita Manasa by Tulsidasa, Gita Press, Gorakhpur

Vishnudharmottarapurana, Bombay, Baroda

Vishnupurana, Bombay, Gita Press, Gorakhpur

David Kinsley : Hindu Goddesses, Delhi

Veronica Lons : Indian Mythology, New Delhi

Dr. J. K. Trikha : A Study of the Ramayana of Valmiki

Dr. Daljeet and P. C. Jain : Ramayana, New Delhi

Swami Harshananda : A Concise Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Benglore

Puranic Encyclopaedia

Prachina Charitra-Kosha